Very-large-scale integration

Very-large-scale integration
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Name	Very-large-scale integration
Caption	Microphotograph of a CMOS integrated circuit die
Type	Technology
Introduced	1970s
Developer	Intel Corporation, Texas Instruments, Fairchild Semiconductor, AMD
Application	Microprocessor, Memory (computer), Digital signal processor, Application-specific integrated circuit

Very-large-scale integration is the process of creating integrated circuits by combining thousands to billions of transistors onto a single semiconductor die. It evolved from earlier integration milestones during the mid-20th century and underpins modern Microprocessors, System on a chip, and high-density Random-access memory devices, enabling compact Personal computers, Smartphones, and infrastructure for the Internet.

History

The evolution of very-large-scale integration traces through key figures and organizations such as Jack Kilby, Robert Noyce, Fairchild Semiconductor, Intel Corporation, and Texas Instruments. Milestones include the invention of the integrated circuit alongside projects like the Apollo program which drove demand for miniaturized electronics, and the development of the Intel 4004 and Intel 8086 microprocessors that catalyzed the IBM PC era. The rise of semiconductor fabrication plants followed initiatives from governments and corporations including Bell Labs, National Semiconductor, Advanced Micro Devices, and collaborations like SEMATECH. Standards and tools advanced through groups such as IEEE, VLSI Research, and academic programs at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and University of California, Berkeley.

Technology and Design

VLSI design uses methodologies and toolchains pioneered by companies and institutions like Cadence Design Systems, Synopsys, Mentor Graphics, IBM Research, and Hewlett-Packard laboratories. Design flows incorporate hardware description languages developed at organizations like Xerox PARC and universities: VHDL and Verilog. Architectures range from general-purpose ARM Holdings-based CPUs to custom Application-specific integrated circuits used by companies such as NVIDIA, Qualcomm, Broadcom, and Apple Inc.. Design for testability and verification leverages contributions from DARPA programs and standards bodies including JEDEC and ISO. Innovations in circuit topology, microarchitecture, and interconnect came from research groups at Bell Labs, IBM Watson Research Center, Courant Institute, and Microsoft Research.

Manufacturing and Fabrication

Semiconductor fabrication is dominated by foundries and companies like TSMC, GlobalFoundries, Samsung Electronics, Intel Corporation, and UMC. Fabrication involves process nodes characterized historically by organizations such as International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors and continuing with consortia like International Roadmap for Devices and Systems. Key fabrication equipment originates from firms including Applied Materials, ASML Holding, KLA Corporation, and Lam Research. Photolithography advances such as extreme ultraviolet techniques were driven by collaborations between ASML, Zeiss, and research at EUV Consortium partners. Materials science contributions come from groups like Corning Incorporated for substrates and Dow Chemical Company for photoresists. Packaging and assembly services are provided by companies such as ASE Technology Holding and Amkor Technology.

Applications

VLSI underlies commercial products and systems from Intel Pentium processors in Personal computers to ARM-based chips in Apple iPhone and Samsung Galaxy devices, as well as networking equipment from Cisco Systems and Juniper Networks. It enables storage products like NAND flash and DRAM used by Seagate Technology and Western Digital, and drives compute in Google datacenters and Amazon Web Services. Specialized VLSI circuits power scientific instruments at facilities like CERN, aerospace systems by Lockheed Martin and Boeing, and medical devices from Siemens Healthineers and Medtronic. Emerging applications include artificial intelligence accelerators from NVIDIA Corporation and Google DeepMind-related hardware, automotive electronics in Tesla, Inc. vehicles, and consumer electronics by Sony Corporation and Panasonic Corporation.

Performance, Scaling, and Limitations

Scaling laws and performance trends were influenced by observations such as Moore's law articulated by Gordon Moore and refinements like Dennard scaling described by Robert Dennard. Physical limits prompted research at institutions including National Institute of Standards and Technology, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and IBM Research into new device concepts: FinFETs, Gate-all-around transistors, spintronics research at Hitachi, and two-dimensional materials investigated at Columbia University and University of Manchester. Thermal management and power density issues motivated work by Intel Labs and NVIDIA Research on packaging, interposer technologies from Xilinx, and cooling systems used by Facebook datacenters. Reliability challenges led to standards and testing by JEDEC and qualification programs used by Honeywell and General Electric in aerospace systems.

Economic and Industry Impact

The VLSI industry reshaped global supply chains with major hubs in regions served by firms such as Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company in Taiwan, Samsung Electronics in South Korea, and fabs in the United States supported by policies from U.S. Department of Commerce and incentives like those influenced by the CHIPS Act. Consolidation and competition feature actors including Intel Corporation, TSMC, Samsung, GlobalFoundries, and the investment strategies of firms like Vanguard Group and BlackRock. Intellectual property and litigation involving corporations such as Qualcomm, Broadcom, Apple Inc., and Samsung Electronics have shaped licensing and standards. Workforce, education, and research funding from entities like National Science Foundation, European Commission, and national initiatives in Japan and South Korea influence innovation, while trade events such as Semicon West and Electronica (trade fair) facilitate industry collaboration.

Category:Semiconductor device fabrication