Old Testament
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| Old Testament | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hebrew Bible |
| Caption | Codex Vaticanus (4th century) |
| Language | Biblical Hebrew, Biblical Aramaic |
| Date | c. 1200–100 BCE (composition); c. 1st millennium BCE (canonization) |
| Genre | Law, prophecy, narrative, poetry, wisdom literature |
Old Testament
The Hebrew Bible collection is a corpus of religious texts central to Judaism and foundational to Christianity, preserved in manuscripts such as the Aleppo Codex and the Dead Sea Scrolls. It encompasses legal texts associated with Moses, prophetic books linked to figures like Isaiah and Jeremiah, and historical narratives concerning kingdoms such as Israel and Judah. Its texts were transmitted through scribal traditions in places including Jerusalem, Babylon, and Alexandria, and later codified in various canons used by communities represented by institutions like the Sanhedrin and the Council of Jamnia.
Name and scope
The canonical designation varies: the Hebrew-speaking community uses the Tanakh rubric dividing texts into Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim, while diverse Christian traditions refer to collections shaped by the Septuagint, the Vulgate, and synods such as the Council of Trent and the Synod of Laodicea. Different corpora include works associated with David, Solomon, and prophetic traditions from Amos to Zechariah, and extend to literature preserved in the Masoretic Text and Greek translations used in Antioch and Alexandrian contexts.
Composition and canonical variations
Composition reflects multiple sources and editorial layers attributed to traditions like the Priestly source and the Deuteronomistic history, with hypothesized contributors such as scribes from King Josiah’s reforms and post-exilic communities in Babylon. Canonical differences arise between the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint, the Samaritan Pentateuch, and Christian compilations used by Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church, and Protestant bodies shaped by reformers like Martin Luther and councils like the Council of Trent. Additional books—termed deuterocanonical books or Apocrypha—appear in traditions linked to Alexandria, Jerome’s Latin translation, and later collections used by Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
Historical context and development
Texts emerged across periods linked to events such as the United Monarchy, the Assyrian conquest of Israel, the Babylonian exile, and the Persian period under figures like Cyrus the Great. Literary activity is associated with institutions including the Temple in Jerusalem, scribal centers in Nabatean and Samaria locales, and diasporic communities in Babylon and Alexandria. Archaeological contexts include inscriptions like the Mesha Stele, administrative archives from Nineveh, and manuscript finds at Qumran that illuminate compositional stages and redactional processes.
Literary structure and genres
The corpus contains juridical code represented by Deuteronomy and covenant collections, narrative historiography in books such as Samuel and Kings, prophetic oracles exemplified by Isaiah and Ezekiel, wisdom literature like Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, and lyrical material in Psalms and Song of Songs. Forms include legal casuistic and apodictic formulations from priestly circles, annalistic regnal lists linked to Hezekiah and Josiah, and apocalyptic visions akin to those in Daniel and later Second Temple literature.
Theology and major themes
Theological emphases include covenant concepts associated with Abraham and Moses, monotheistic affirmation under prophets such as Isaiah and Deutero-Isaiah, notions of law and righteousness taught by scribes and sages like those in the tradition of Ezra and Nehemiah, and prophetic social justice critiques delivered by Amos and Micah. Eschatological motifs and messianic expectations recur in texts linked to royal ideologies around David and in visionary traditions that influenced sects like the Essenes.
Reception, translation, and textual transmission
Translation and transmission involve major versions such as the Septuagint produced in Alexandria, Jerome’s Vulgate in Bethlehem and Rome, and medieval translations used by communities including the Masoretes in Tiberias; manuscript witnesses include the Aleppo Codex and the Codex Leningradensis. Textual criticism draws on evidence from the Dead Sea Scrolls, Samaritan manuscripts, and citations in early Christian writers like Origen and Augustine, and was advanced in modern scholarship by figures such as Julius Wellhausen and Gerhard von Rad.
Influence and interpretation in Judaism and Christianity
Interpretive traditions range from rabbinic exegesis recorded in the Mishnah and Talmud to patristic readings by Justin Martyr and Irenaeus and medieval commentaries by Rashi, Maimonides, and Thomas Aquinas. Liturgical uses appear in rites of the Synagogue and Mass, while legal and ethical applications influenced lawgivers and thinkers in societies shaped by interactions with institutions like the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. Modern reception engages movements and scholars in biblical criticism, historical Jesus studies, and ecumenical dialogues involving bodies such as the World Council of Churches.