Apocrypha

Apocrypha
Nicolae Iorga (Nicolas Jorga) · Public domain · source
Name	Apocrypha
Caption	Collection of intertestamental and deuterocanonical writings
Author	Various
Country	Ancient Near East, Hellenistic kingdoms, Roman Empire
Language	Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, Latin, Syriac
Subject	Religious texts, intertestamental literature, deuterocanonical works
Genre	Religious literature, pseudepigrapha, wisdom literature, narrative
Pub date	ca. 3rd cent. BCE – 4th cent. CE

Apocrypha The term denotes a heterogeneous corpus of ancient Jewish and early Christian writings composed in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, Latin, and Syriac, traditionally excluded from certain canonical collections yet preserved in others. These books intersect with the literatures and institutions of Judaism, Hellenistic Judaism, Early Christianity, Second Temple period, and the textual traditions of the Septuagint, Vulgate, Peshitta, and Masoretic Text. Their complex reception involves councils, scholars, and ecclesiastical authorities such as Josephus, Origen of Alexandria, Jerome, Councils of Carthage, Council of Trent, and Westminster Assembly.

Definition and Etymology

The label derives from the Greek ἀπόκρυφος (apókruphos), used by Philo of Alexandria and later Origen of Alexandria to signify "hidden" or "esoteric," and adopted in Latin by Jerome. The term evolved in usage among Church Fathers and Medieval scholasticism to mark works considered non-canonical by some authorities, paralleling the classification employed by Josephus when distinguishing texts within Second Temple literature. Debates over nomenclature involve terminologies from Rabbinic Judaism, Patristics, and Reformation-era polemics reflected in documents like the Thirty-Nine Articles and decrees of the Council of Trent.

Historical Development and Usage

Compositional history spans the Hellenistic period, the Hasmonean dynasty, and the Roman Empire, with literary contexts tied to Alexandria, Jerusalem, Qumran, Syria-Palestine, and the Diaspora. Early transmission occurred through the Septuagint community, with reception shaped by figures such as Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius of Caesarea, and Athanasius of Alexandria. Usage diverged in the Byzantine Empire, Latin West, and Syriac Christianity, producing different canonical repertoires recognized by institutions like the Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church, Oriental Orthodox Churches, and various Protestant confessions.

Canonical Status in Religious Traditions

In the Roman Catholic Church the corpus was affirmed as deuterocanonical at the Council of Trent, while the Eastern Orthodox Church retains a variable list influenced by local synods and traditions such as those of Jerusalem and Constantinople. Oriental Orthodox and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church preserve additional books within their canons; the latter’s canon includes works transmitted in Ge'ez. Rabbinic Judaism consolidated the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) in the Masoretic Text tradition, leading rabbinic authorities like Maimonides and medieval councils to exclude many of these writings, a process influenced by figures such as Saadia Gaon. During the Reformation key actors like Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned deuterocanonical status, prompting confessional lists in documents like the Canons of Dort and the Thirty-Nine Articles.

Contents and Major Works

The corpus contains narrative, wisdom, apocalyptic, and pseudepigraphic texts including works commonly identified in various traditions: Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, Additions to Esther, Danielic additions such as Bel and the Dragon, Prayer of Azariah, and Susanna, as well as texts like 1 Enoch, Jubilees, Letter of Aristeas, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Psalms of Solomon, and Life of Adam and Eve. The Ethiopian canon includes 1 Enoch and Jubilees alongside indigenous texts such as Ethiopic Enoch.

Textual Transmission and Manuscripts

Manuscript witnesses derive from the Septuagint, Vulgate, Peshitta, Dead Sea Scrolls, and Masoretic transmission streams, preserved in codices like Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus, and Codex Alexandrinus. Fragments from Qumran and scroll finds have illuminated variants of texts such as Sirach and Jubilees, while Syriac and Coptic witnesses contribute to reconstructing recensions. Scholarly work on textual criticism engages methods used for Hebrew Bible and New Testament studies, comparing lectionaries, patristic citations, and liturgical usages across geographic centers including Alexandria, Antioch, and Rome.

Reception, Influence, and Controversies

These writings influenced theological debates on topics like intercession, eschatology, angels, and martyrdom and shaped liturgical practices in Eastern liturgies, Latin liturgy, and Ethiopian liturgy. Their reception provoked controversies in patristic canon lists, medieval disputations, and early modern polemics involving scholars such as Erasmus of Rotterdam and William Tyndale. Debates over historicity, doctrinal import, and canonical authority affected education in institutions like University of Paris and reform movements tied to the Protestant Reformation, producing confessional positions in catechisms and synodal decrees.

Modern Scholarship and Translations

Contemporary research integrates philology, paleography, archaeology, and comparative literatures, with scholars at centers like Oxford University, University of Cambridge, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Harvard Divinity School, and the École Biblique producing critical editions, commentary, and translations. Major modern translations and editions include multilingual projects inspired by the Loeb Classical Library, critical editions from the Oxford Classical Texts, and interlinear work on Dead Sea Scrolls materials. Current debates focus on provenance, intertextuality with Pseudepigrapha, and the role of these texts in reconstructing Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity, with digital humanities initiatives and manuscript repositories expanding access.

Category:Religious texts