Jallianwala Bagh massacre

Jallianwala Bagh massacre
Sukanta Pal · CC BY-SA 4.0 · source
Title	Jallianwala Bagh massacre
Date	13 April 1919
Location	Amritsar, Punjab, British Raj
Coordinates	31.619, 74.876
Fatalities	estimates vary (official 379; other estimates up to 1,000)
Injured	hundreds to over a thousand
Perpetrators	troops of the British Indian Army under Brigadier Reginald Dyer
Weapons	rifles, machine guns

Jallianwala Bagh massacre

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was a mass killing that occurred on 13 April 1919 in a public garden in Amritsar in Punjab during the period of the British Raj. Troops under Brigadier Reginald Dyer fired on a large crowd of unarmed civilians who had assembled for the festival of Baisakhi and to protest the arrest of two nationalist leaders, producing national and international outrage that reconfigured relations among figures such as Mahatma Gandhi, Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Tilak, Rabindranath Tagore, and institutions including the Indian National Congress and the British Parliament.

Background

Tensions in Punjab escalated after the end of First World War when wartime controls, recruitment, and resource demands intersected with the return of soldiers and rising political activity by groups such as the Ghadar Party and the Home Rule movement. British authorities invoked the Rowlatt Act to extend wartime emergency measures, linking to prior legislation like the Defence of India Act 1915, provoking leaders including Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant, and Lala Lajpat Rai to oppose repressive measures. In Amritsar, clashes between civilians and troops, including incidents involving the Punjab Rifles and local police under the Indian Police Service precursor, created a volatile environment. The arrest of leaders such as Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew intensified protests and drew crowds to public spaces like the Bagh, a walled garden near the Golden Temple and the Amritsar Cantonment.

Massacre (13 April 1919)

On 13 April, a large gathering assembled in Jallianwala Bagh for Baisakhi and to protest the detentions; attendance included pilgrims, market traders, and political activists linked to groups such as the Punjab Provincial Committee of the Indian National Congress and sympathizers of the Ghadar movement. Brigadier Dyer, commanding troops of the British Indian Army, ordered soldiers from regiments including the 36th Sikhs and units containing personnel linked to the Royal Fusiliers to block exits and open fire without warning. Eyewitness accounts from journalists associated with newspapers like The Times of India, The Tribune (Chandigarh), and international correspondents referenced volleys lasting about ten minutes, directed into a trapped crowd near a well and narrow lanes. The firing, including use of service rifles and controlled bursts, created chaos among devotees arriving from sites such as the Akal Takht and neighborhoods around Hall Bazaar.

Immediate aftermath and casualties

Initial colonial reports produced numbers later disputed by Indian nationalists, civic bodies such as the Amritsar Municipality, medical practitioners from institutions like the Government Medical College, Amritsar, and relief organizations linked to figures including Sarojini Naidu. The Hunter Commission later recorded 379 dead and 1,137 wounded according to official figures, whereas private investigations, eye-witnesses, and testimonies presented to bodies such as the House of Commons and the Indian National Congress estimated fatalities ranging higher, sometimes up to 1,000. Bodies were removed under orders from the Amritsar Deputy Commissioner and military authorities; survivors described makeshift hospitals at places like the Golden Temple complex and aid from members of the Sikh community, Hindu and Muslim relief committees. International reaction included criticism in the League of Nations's moral sphere, commentary by voices like Mark Twain and Rabindranath Tagore—who renounced a British honor—and coverage in outlets such as The Manchester Guardian.

Investigations and inquiries

The British government established the Hunter Commission to inquire into martial law and the actions of Brigadier Dyer; members included legislators and civil servants from institutions tied to the India Office and the Colonial Office. The Commission conducted hearings with witnesses including Dyer, local officials, doctors from the Amritsar Medical College and survivors associated with political groups like the All-India Muslim League and the Congress. The Hunter Commission's report criticized some aspects of civil administration and recommended disciplinary steps; its findings contrasted with debates in the House of Commons and the House of Lords, including statements by figures such as Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George. Separately, the Sedition trial atmosphere and legal reviews by the Privy Council and lawyers such as C. Sankaran Nair and Muhammad Ali Jinnah contextualized legal questions about authority, excessive force, and indemnity.

Political and legal repercussions

The massacre accelerated political realignments: leaders including Gandhi intensified campaigns such as the Non-cooperation movement and debates within the Indian National Congress over constitutional reforms like those later realized in the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms and the Government of India Act 1919. Colonial responses included removal and censure measures within the British Indian Army and administrative actions involving officials such as the Viceroy of India, Lord Chelmsford. Legal consequences for Dyer were limited: he was relieved of duty and censured by a military committee but never criminally prosecuted; he became a polarizing figure supported by some in Britain, including petitions from societies like the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds-unrelated public groups and opponents in Indian political circles. The incident influenced constitutional actors such as Lord Birkenhead and shaped subsequent negotiations that culminated in later constitutional documents like the Government of India Act 1935.

Legacy and commemorations

The site became a focal point for memory politics involving organizations such as the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee and cultural figures including Bhagat Singh and Subhas Chandra Bose. Memorialization efforts led to the establishment of the Jallianwala Bagh memorial adjacent to the Akal Takht and the Golden Temple, with monuments, plaques, and annual observances on 13 April attended by political leaders including Indira Gandhi and Manmohan Singh. Scholarly work from historians at institutions like Jawaharlal Nehru University, the University of Oxford, and the School of Oriental and African Studies has produced debates about casualty figures, colonial culpability, and memory. The massacre continues to influence diplomatic relations between India and the United Kingdom, prompting formal apologies, cultural reparations, and visits by officials including recent discussions involving the British Prime Minister and the President of India.

Category:Massacres in India Category:1919 in India