Congress
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| Congress | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Name | Congress |
| Type | Bicameral legislature |
| Founded | 1789 |
| Country | United States |
| Chambers | United States Senate, United States House of Representatives |
| Leader | Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the United States Senate |
| Elections | United States general election |
| Meeting place | United States Capitol |
Congress Congress is the bicameral national legislature of the United States composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It convenes at the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. and exercises lawmaking, budgetary, and oversight roles defined by the United States Constitution. Congress interacts with the Executive Office of the President, the Supreme Court of the United States, state legislatures such as the California State Legislature and the New York State Assembly, and numerous federal agencies including the Department of State and the Department of Defense.
Overview
Congress originated from the deliberations at the Philadelphia Convention and derives its authority from Article I of the United States Constitution. The two chambers—the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives—balance representation by state and population, reflecting compromises like the Great Compromise and debates surrounding the Three-Fifths Compromise. Congressional powers include taxation, appropriations, interstate commerce regulation tied to cases like Gibbons v. Ogden, and advice and consent over treaties and nominations involving actors such as the Secretary of State and federal judges appointed by presidents like George Washington and Abraham Lincoln.
History
Early legislative practice evolved from the First Continental Congress and the Second Continental Congress into a permanent body after the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788. The development of party systems saw actors like the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party give way to the Whig Party and the Democratic Party, and later the Republican Party after the Civil War. Landmark periods include Reconstruction with figures such as Thaddeus Stevens, Progressive Era reforms influenced by Woodrow Wilson, New Deal expansions under Franklin D. Roosevelt, and postwar legislative initiatives during the administrations of Harry S. Truman and Lyndon B. Johnson including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Structure and Membership
Membership of the House is apportioned under the Apportionment Act following the United States census, with districts drawn according to state laws and contested in litigation such as Baker v. Carr and Rucho v. Common Cause. Senators represent states for six-year terms, a design influenced by the Connecticut Compromise and debated at the Constitutional Convention. Congressional leadership roles include the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, party leaders like the House Minority Leader and the Senate Majority Leader, and officers such as the Clerk of the House and the Secretary of the Senate. Members come from varied backgrounds and are subject to ethics oversight by bodies like the House Ethics Committee and the Senate Ethics Committee.
Powers and Functions
Congress exercises enumerated powers in Article I, such as taxation, coining money, and regulating interstate commerce, with jurisprudential contours defined by cases like Marbury v. Madison and McCulloch v. Maryland. It holds the power of the purse through appropriations bills and budget processes involving the Congressional Budget Office and the Office of Management and Budget interaction. The Senate's advice and consent role affects nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States and treaties ratified with foreign states such as France and institutions like the United Nations. Congress may also impeach and remove executive and judicial officers, a process used in proceedings against officials including Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton.
Legislative Process
Bills may originate in either chamber—revenue bills traditionally in the United States House of Representatives—and proceed through committee hearings, markups, floor debate, and voting. Reconciliation and budget reconciliation procedures have been used during initiatives like the Affordable Care Act debate and tax legislation such as the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. Conference committees reconcile differences between House and Senate versions before presidential signature or veto by occupants of the White House, including interactions with administrations like those of Barack Obama and Donald Trump. Congressional oversight employs subpoenas and hearings involving witnesses from federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Internal Revenue Service.
Committees and Leadership
Congressional work is organized into standing committees like the House Ways and Means Committee, the Senate Judiciary Committee, and the House Appropriations Committee, as well as select committees and joint committees such as the Joint Committee on Taxation. Committee chairs and rankings reflect party control and seniority systems contested in disputes involving leaders like Tip O'Neill and Newt Gingrich. Leadership in each chamber includes party whips such as the Senate Minority Whip and staff directors who coordinate with policy groups like the Brookings Institution and the Heritage Foundation. Rules governing debate, including the filibuster in the Senate, shape legislative strategy and minority-majority dynamics seen during the tenure of leaders like Mitch McConnell.
Impact and Criticism
Congressional legislation has enacted transformative statutes such as the Social Security Act, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Medicare Act, affecting domestic policy and international posture via authorizations like the Authorization for Use of Military Force. Criticisms address partisanship and polarization highlighted in analyses by scholars at Harvard University and Yale University, concerns over lobbying and influence of groups like the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations and corporate interests, and institutional challenges such as gridlock examined in works by historians like Gordon S. Wood and political scientists like Theda Skocpol. Reform proposals range from campaign finance changes following decisions like Citizens United v. FEC to rules reform inspired by episodes such as the Watergate scandal and the aftermath of September 11 attacks.