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| Culture | |
|---|---|
| Name | Culture |
| Region | Global |
| Period | Ancient to Contemporary |
| Major features | Symbols, Norms, Values, Artifacts, Practices |
Culture
Culture encompasses the shared symbols, norms, values, practices, and artifacts that distinguish groups across time and space and shape collective behavior in societies such as Ancient Rome, Imperial China, Ottoman Empire, Aztec Empire, and contemporary polities like United States, India, Brazil, Nigeria, Japan. Scholars from institutions such as University of Oxford, Harvard University, Columbia University, University of Cambridge, and University of Tokyo analyze cultural dynamics in contexts including the Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment, Industrial Revolution, and the Digital Revolution.
Definitions offered by theorists in traditions tied to Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, Clifford Geertz, Franz Boas, and Margaret Mead frame culture as encompassing material artifacts seen in collections at the British Museum, Louvre, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Smithsonian Institution, and the National Palace Museum alongside symbolic systems studied in the Paris, Berlin, Princeton University, Yale University intellectual milieus and debated in forums like the United Nations General Assembly, World Economic Forum, and UNESCO.
Core elements include language families such as Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Afroasiatic, Niger–Congo, and Austronesian; religious traditions like Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism; artistic forms represented by works in the Mona Lisa, Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, Shakespeare's Hamlet, Oedipus Rex, and Kabuki; legal codes exemplified by the Code of Hammurabi, Napoleonic Code, Magna Carta, United States Constitution, and Napoleon Bonaparte’s reforms; and rituals preserved in ceremonies of the Vatican, Meiji Shrine, Kumbh Mela, Carnival of Brazil, and Dia de los Muertos.
Transmission occurs through institutions such as family, church, mosque, school, university, apprenticeship, and media outlets like BBC, CNN, NHK, Al Jazeera, The New York Times, with influential programs and movements traced to actors including Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Paulo Freire, John Dewey, and Ivan Pavlov. Mechanisms include apprenticeship traditions seen in guilds of Medieval Europe, oral histories from Maori, Navajo, Yoruba communities, and codified curricula at Stanford University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sorbonne University.
Variation is evident across regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, South America, Eastern Europe, Middle East and among diasporas originating in Transatlantic slave trade, Great Migration (African American), Indian diaspora, Chinese diaspora, Jewish diaspora. Diversity surfaces in comparative studies of festivals like Holi, Ramadan, Passover, Obon, Oktoberfest and culinary traditions exemplified by Sichuan cuisine, Mexican cuisine, Italian cuisine, Ethiopian cuisine, Peruvian cuisine.
Institutions shaping practice include museums such as the Guggenheim Museum, theaters like the Globe Theatre, orchestras including the Berlin Philharmonic, publishing houses like Penguin Random House, film studios such as Paramount Pictures, Toho Company, Bollywood production houses, and sporting bodies like FIFA, International Olympic Committee, UEFA, ICC. Practices are manifested in intellectual movements like Romanticism, Modernism, Postmodernism, Feminist movement, Civil Rights Movement and in policies from bodies like the European Union, African Union, ASEAN, Mercosur.
Identity construction links to figures and events such as Nelson Mandela, Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Simón Bolívar, Winston Churchill and symbols like the Union Jack, Tricolore, Star-Spangled Banner, Maple Leaf Flag, Rising Sun Flag. Debates over multiculturalism in contexts such as Canada, France, Germany, Australia, and legal cases before courts like the International Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights illustrate how cultural claims intersect with citizenship regimes in states including Russia, Turkey, South Africa, Mexico, Argentina.
Cultural change is driven by forces tied to explorers and empires such as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, British Empire, Spanish Empire, and modern phenomena associated with corporations like Apple Inc., Google, Amazon (company), Facebook, Netflix and global flows mediated by infrastructures such as Suez Canal, Panama Canal, Silk Road, Trans-Siberian Railway, satellite communications. Processes including cultural hybridization studied in the aftermath of events like World War I, World War II, Cold War, decolonization, and integrations such as European Economic Community illustrate adaptation and resistance observed in movements like Occupy Wall Street, Arab Spring, Black Lives Matter, Suffrage movement.
Category:Human culture