South America

South America
source
Name	South America
Area km2	17840000
Population	430000000
Countries	12
Largest city	São Paulo
Languages	Spanish, Portuguese, Quechua, Guarani
Timezone	UTC−5 to UTC−3
Coordinates	15°S 60°W

South America is a continent in the Western Hemisphere that occupies the southern portion of the Americas. It contains extensive landscapes from the Andes Mountains to the Amazon Basin and urban agglomerations such as São Paulo, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Lima, and Bogotá. The continent has been shaped by pre-Columbian civilizations including the Inca Empire, European colonization by Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire, and modern states such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Colombia.

Geography

The continental backbone is the Andes, a mountain chain that traverses nations like Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. East of the Andes lies the Amazon Basin, drained by the Amazon River, with major tributaries such as the Madeira River, Tapajós River, and Negro River. The eastern lowlands include the Pantanal wetlands in Brazil and Paraguay, and the Gran Chaco plain shared by Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia. Offshore features include the Falkland Islands and the Galápagos Islands. Coastal zones encompass the Caribbean Sea north coasts and the South Atlantic and Pacific Ocean margins, with major ports like Callao, Valparaíso, Montevideo, and Santos.

History

Pre-Columbian polities included the Inca Empire, the Moche culture, the Tiwanaku, the Wari culture, and numerous Amazonian societies documented by explorers such as Alexander von Humboldt. Post-1492 contact brought expeditions led by Christopher Columbus's successors, conquest campaigns by Hernán Cortés-associated conquistadors and Francisco Pizarro, and colonial administration under the Viceroyalty of Peru and the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Independence movements were inspired by figures like Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín, Antonio José de Sucre, and events such as the May Revolution and the Cry of Asunción, resulting in the emergence of republics including Bolivia and Ecuador. The 19th and 20th centuries saw conflicts such as the War of the Pacific, the Paraguayan War, and the Chaco War, plus territorial settlements via treaties like the Treaty of Tordesillas's legacy reinterpretations and arbitration by courts such as the International Court of Justice.

Demographics and Society

Population centers include metropolitan areas such as São Paulo Metropolitan Region, Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area, Greater Santiago, Bogotá Savannah, and Lima Metropolitan Area. Ethnolinguistic diversity reflects Indigenous groups like the Quechua people, Aymara people, Guarani people, and Yanomami, Afro-descendant communities in Brazil and Colombia, and descendants of European migrants from Italy, Spain, Portugal, Germany, and Lebanon. Languages with official status include Spanish language, Portuguese language, Quechua language, Guarani language, and regional recognition for varieties such as Aymara language. Cultural expressions are visible in festivals like Carnival in Brazil, Inti Raymi, literary figures such as Gabriel García Márquez, Jorge Luis Borges, Pablo Neruda, and musicians like Astor Piazzolla and Caetano Veloso.

Economy and Infrastructure

Economic activity spans resource extraction, agriculture, manufacturing, and services. Major export commodities include soy from Brazil, copper from Chile, oil from Venezuela and Ecuador, and coffee from Colombia and Brazil. Industrial centers encompass Santos, Greater Buenos Aires, Ciudad Guayana, and Belo Horizonte. Financial hubs include stock exchanges such as the B3 (exchange), the Buenos Aires Stock Exchange, and the Santiago Stock Exchange. Transport corridors include the Pan-American Highway segments, rail projects like Ferrocarril Central Andino, airports such as Guarulhos International Airport, El Dorado International Airport, and riverine navigation on the Amazon River. Development challenges relate to income inequality recorded by institutions like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, while regional integration efforts operate through blocs such as Mercosur, the Andean Community, and the Union of South American Nations.

Politics and International Relations

Nation-states range from federations like Brazil and Argentina to unitary republics like Chile and Peru. Cold War-era dynamics involved interventions and alignments including operations connected to Operation Condor and political movements led by figures such as Hugo Chávez and Salvador Allende. Contemporary diplomacy engages multilateral venues like the Organization of American States and the United Nations; regional security cooperation appears in mechanisms like the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. Border disputes have reached adjudication at bodies like the International Court of Justice and bilateral arbitration between states such as Chile and Peru. Energy geopolitics feature projects such as the Bolivian gas pipeline initiatives and transnational agreements like those negotiated at OAS forums and commodity-specific accords.

Environment and Biodiversity

The continent hosts megadiverse ecoregions including the Amazon rainforest, the Atlantic Forest, the Cerrado savanna, and the Páramo. Endemic taxa include species such as the jaguar, Andean condor, llama, alpaca, and freshwater fauna like the piranha and arapaima. Conservation efforts involve protected areas such as Manu National Park, Iguazú National Park, and the Pantanal Matogrossense National Park, and international frameworks like the Convention on Biological Diversity. Environmental pressures include deforestation driven by soy expansion and cattle ranching, mining operations in the Andes, and urban pollution in megacities such as Santiago and Lima. Climate phenomena like El Niño–Southern Oscillation influence agriculture and hydroelectric generation at dams such as Itaipu Dam and Guri Dam, while scientific institutions including Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais engage in monitoring and research.

Category:Continents