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| Computer hardware | |
|---|---|
| Name | Computer hardware |
| Invented | 20th century |
| Inventor | Various |
| Type | Physical components of computing systems |
Computer hardware Computer hardware comprises the tangible components that enable electronic computation, interfacing, and data processing. It encompasses devices from early electromechanical systems associated with Alan Turing and Konrad Zuse to contemporary systems developed by Intel Corporation, Advanced Micro Devices, and NVIDIA, integrating standards from organizations such as Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and International Organization for Standardization.
Hardware includes physical elements produced by firms like IBM, Apple Inc., Microsoft Corporation (for Surface devices), Dell Technologies, and Hewlett Packard Enterprise and implemented in settings ranging from Silicon Valley fabrication facilities to research labs at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Stanford University. It is shaped by milestones such as the ENIAC project, the work of John von Neumann, the development of the UNIVAC I, innovations from Fairchild Semiconductor, and commercial products like the IBM System/360. Standards and IP regimes invoked by entities such as United States Patent and Trademark Office and World Trade Organization affect design, while procurement by institutions including NASA, European Space Agency, and National Institutes of Health drives specialized hardware.
Key components include processors from various manufacturers exemplified by designs from Intel Core and AMD Ryzen, graphics processing units from NVIDIA GeForce and AMD Radeon, memory modules such as DRAM and SRAM used in designs by Micron Technology and Samsung Electronics, storage devices including HDDs and SSDs produced by Western Digital and Seagate Technology, motherboards adhering to form factors promoted by Advanced Micro Devices and Intel Corporation, power supplies certified by 80 PLUS programs, cooling solutions from companies like Noctua and Corsair, and I/O components standardized by groups such as USB Implementers Forum and PCI-SIG. Peripheral devices include displays manufactured by LG Electronics and Samsung, input devices from Logitech International, and networking hardware from Cisco Systems and Juniper Networks.
Architectural paradigms trace to theories and implementations from figures like John von Neumann and Gordon Bell, and companies such as DEC and Cray Inc. provided influential supercomputer architectures. Instruction set architectures are dominated by families like x86 (championed by Intel Corporation) and ARM architecture (developed by ARM Holdings), while alternative approaches appear in projects from IBM with POWER architecture and research at University of Cambridge. Design methodologies rely on electronic design automation tools from Cadence Design Systems and Synopsys, fabrication nodes advanced by TSMC and GlobalFoundries, and thermomechanical engineering informed by standards from American Society of Mechanical Engineers and IEC. Fault tolerance and redundancy techniques are applied in systems deployed at Google LLC data centers and Amazon Web Services cloud facilities.
Performance metrics are quantified using benchmarks such as those developed by SPEC and suites from PassMark Software, with high-performance computing rankings compiled by the TOP500 list and influenced by installations at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. GPU compute throughput comparisons draw on data from NVIDIA accelerators used in projects at CERN and AI research at OpenAI. Power efficiency evaluations reference initiatives like the Green500 and regulatory regimes from U.S. Department of Energy and European Commission energy labeling. Industry contests, including collaborations between Intel and Microsoft for optimization, steer microarchitecture tuning and compiler work from entities such as GCC and LLVM Project.
Production depends on semiconductor fabs operated by TSMC, Samsung Electronics, and Intel Corporation, with equipment supplied by ASML Holding and Applied Materials. Raw materials are sourced through global trade networks involving firms like BHP and Rio Tinto for metals, while geopolitical factors implicate governments such as United States and People's Republic of China and trade agreements negotiated under World Trade Organization frameworks. Logistics involve distributors including Arrow Electronics and Avnet, contract manufacturers like Foxconn and Flex Ltd., and quality audits by agencies such as Underwriters Laboratories. Supply chain disruptions have been documented in events tied to the COVID-19 pandemic and regional export controls involving Semiconductor Supply Chain policies.
Service models range from warranty and repair programs by Apple Inc. and Dell Technologies to third-party technicians certified by organizations like CompTIA and International Electrotechnical Commission. Diagnostic tools include firmware utilities from Intel and AMD and open-source toolchains maintained by communities around Linux kernel distributions such as Debian and Red Hat Enterprise Linux. Repairability debates involve advocacy from groups such as iFixit and legislative movements like the Right to Repair campaign, while lifecycle support is affected by corporate policies at Microsoft Corporation for device drivers and firmware updates.
Environmental concerns involve e-waste management addressed by directives like the WEEE Directive and programs administered by organizations such as Basel Convention parties and EPA regulations. Recycling infrastructure is provided by companies like Sims Limited and Umicore, and sustainability reporting is adopted by firms including Intel Corporation and Apple Inc. Initiatives for circular economy practices involve partnerships with NGOs and standards from ISO committees, while research from institutions such as Yale University and University of California, Berkeley informs life-cycle assessments and policy recommendations.
Category:Hardware