United States courts of appeals

United States courts of appeals are the intermediate appellate courts within the federal judiciary. They were created by the Judiciary Act of 1891 to relieve the caseload of the Supreme Court of the United States and are organized into thirteen circuits: eleven numbered circuits, the District of Columbia Circuit, and the Federal Circuit. These courts have mandatory jurisdiction to hear appeals from final decisions of the United States district courts and from many federal administrative agencies, making them the final arbiter in the vast majority of federal cases.

Structure and jurisdiction

The United States is geographically divided into eleven numbered circuits, each covering multiple states and territories, such as the Ninth Circuit encompassing the West Coast and Pacific islands. The District of Columbia Circuit holds particular importance due to its jurisdiction over appeals involving many federal agencies headquartered in Washington, D.C., including the Federal Communications Commission and the Environmental Protection Agency. In contrast, the Federal Circuit has nationwide jurisdiction defined by subject matter rather than geography, hearing specialized appeals in areas like patent law, international trade cases from the United States Court of International Trade, and claims against the federal government from the United States Court of Federal Claims. Each circuit is bound by the precedents established in its own prior decisions, a principle known as stare decisis, but is not bound by rulings from other circuits, which can lead to circuit splits that may ultimately require resolution by the Supreme Court of the United States.

Procedure and operation

Appeals are typically heard by randomly selected three-judge panels, though cases of exceptional importance may be heard *en banc* by a larger contingent of the circuit's active judges, as governed by the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure. The process is primarily based on written legal briefs submitted by the parties, with oral arguments granted at the discretion of the panel; these arguments are often held in the circuit's main courthouse, such as the Thurgood Marshall Federal Judiciary Building for the Fourth Circuit, but judges may also sit in other cities within the circuit. The courts issue written opinions that explain their legal reasoning, and these opinions are published in the Federal Reporter; unpublished opinions may have limited precedential value depending on the circuit's local rules. Decisions from these courts are final unless the Supreme Court of the United States grants a writ of certiorari, which it does for only a small fraction of cases, often those involving significant legal questions or resolving conflicts between circuits.

History and development

The immediate predecessor to the modern courts was the circuit courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789, which were originally presided over by Supreme Court justices "riding circuit" alongside local district judges. The immense burden of this travel, criticized by justices like Joseph Story, led to the creation of the intermediate appellate courts through the Judiciary Act of 1891, also known as the Evarts Act, which designated them as "circuit courts of appeals." A major reorganization occurred with the Judicial Code of 1948, which renamed them to their current title and further defined their structure. The most significant modern expansion was the creation of the Federal Circuit in 1982 through the Federal Courts Improvement Act, which merged the appellate functions of the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the United States Court of Claims to create a specialized court for uniform interpretation of certain national laws.

Judges and appointments

Judges for the courts of appeals, known as circuit judges, are Article III judges appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate. They serve during "good behavior," effectively for life, and can only be removed through the impeachment process, as outlined in the Constitution of the United States. Each circuit has a chief judge who assumes administrative responsibilities; this position is held by the judge with the greatest seniority among those under the age of 65, as stipulated by the Judicial Code. The number of authorized judgeships per circuit is set by Congress and varies significantly, with the largest being the Ninth Circuit. Retired judges, like those from the Second Circuit, may continue to serve on panels as senior status judges, helping to manage the federal appellate caseload.

Relationship to other courts

The courts of appeals stand directly above the United States district courts, reviewing their final decisions and certain interlocutory orders, and below the Supreme Court of the United States, whose review is discretionary. They also exercise appellate jurisdiction over decisions from numerous federal administrative bodies, such as the National Labor Relations Board and the Securities and Exchange Commission, effectively serving as the primary judicial check on the executive branch's regulatory power. While their decisions bind all district courts within their circuit, they do not bind courts in other circuits or state courts, though their rulings on federal law are often persuasive. The unique Federal Circuit interacts directly with specialized trial courts like the United States Court of International Trade, and its decisions on patent law profoundly affect the United States Patent and Trademark Office and nationwide litigation.

Category:United States courts of appeals Category:1891 establishments in the United States Category:National courts of appeal