Old Testament
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| Old Testament | |
|---|---|
| Name | Old Testament |
| Caption | A page from the Leningrad Codex, a key Masoretic Text manuscript. |
| Religion | Judaism, Christianity |
| Language | Biblical Hebrew, Biblical Aramaic |
| Chapters | 929 (Protestant), over 1,000 (Catholic & Orthodox) |
| Verses | 23,145 (Protestant) |
| Written | c. 12th–2nd century BCE |
Old Testament. It is the first major division of the Christian biblical canons, forming a sacred scripture shared with Judaism, where it is known as the Tanakh. This collection of ancient writings encompasses diverse literary genres, including law, prophecy, wisdom literature, and historical narratives, foundational to the religious thought of the Western world. Its texts were composed, compiled, and redacted over many centuries, reflecting the evolving experiences of the Israelites in the ancient Near East.
Composition and structure
The canon is organized differently within Judaism and the various Christian denominations. The Jewish Tanakh is divided into three sections: the Torah (Pentateuch), the Nevi'im (Prophets), and the Ketuvim (Writings). Protestant traditions follow a similar order but categorize the books differently, while Catholic and Eastern Orthodox canons include additional texts known as the Deuterocanonical books or Anagignoskomena, such as Tobit and Maccabees. Major divisions include the Pentateuch, traditionally ascribed to Moses, the historical books like Joshua and Kings, the poetic books including Psalms and Job, and the prophetic works of figures like Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel.
Historical and cultural context
These texts emerged from the complex history of the Israelites and Judahites within the Ancient Levant. Key narratives reference events such as the patriarchal migrations, the Exodus from Egypt under Moses, the conquest of Canaan led by Joshua, and the establishment of the United Monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon. The subsequent division into the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah, their conflicts with empires like Assyria and Babylonia, and the traumatic experiences of the fall of Jerusalem and the Babylonian captivity are central backdrops. This history is interwoven with the religious practices and legal traditions of surrounding cultures in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Ancient Egypt.
Major themes and theology
Central theological concepts include the covenant relationship between God (Yahweh) and his chosen people, a bond established with figures like Abraham and renewed at Mount Sinai. This covenant entails divine law, justice, and the call for ethical monotheistic worship, as fiercely advocated by the Latter Prophets. Other profound themes are the nature of human sin and suffering, explored in books like Genesis and Job, the hope for a messianic restoration, and the pursuit of wisdom and righteousness as seen in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. The concept of God's active involvement in history, or Salvation history, is a unifying thread.
Textual history and manuscripts
The original texts were composed primarily in Biblical Hebrew, with portions of Daniel and Ezra written in Biblical Aramaic. The transmission of these texts is a complex scholarly field. The oldest complete manuscripts are the Masoretic Text, preserved by Jewish scribes known as the Masoretes, exemplified by the Leningrad Codex and the Aleppo Codex. Earlier Hebrew witnesses were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran, which include fragments of nearly every book. For Christianity, the ancient Greek translation known as the Septuagint was critically important, serving as the primary scriptural source for the New Testament writers and the Early Church.
Influence and interpretation
Its influence on Western culture is immeasurable, shaping the legal, ethical, artistic, and literary traditions of Europe and the Americas. Within Judaism, it is interpreted through a vast corpus of rabbinic literature, including the Talmud and Midrash. Christianity reads these texts as preparing for the coming of Jesus Christ, viewing many narratives and prophecies through a christological lens, a method seen in the Gospel of Matthew. Critical academic approaches, such as the Documentary hypothesis, analyze its composition through historical and literary criticism. Its stories and characters, from Noah's Ark to the trials of Job, remain deeply embedded in global cultural consciousness.