Executive Order 9066

Executive Order 9066
Executive order number	9066
Type	Executive order
Signed by	Franklin D. Roosevelt
Date signed	February 19, 1942
Federal register	[https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1942.html 7 FR 1407]

Executive Order 9066 was a directive issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II on February 19, 1942. The order authorized the Secretary of War and military commanders to designate military areas from which any or all persons could be excluded. This broad authority was used to forcibly relocate and incarcerate over 120,000 individuals of Japanese ancestry, the majority of whom were American citizens, into a network of internment camps. The order stands as a major event in American history, representing a profound failure of civil liberties during a national crisis.

Background and context

The order followed the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7, 1941, which precipitated the U.S. entry into World War II. Widespread fear of espionage and a fifth column, fueled by long-standing anti-Asian prejudice and sensationalist reports, created a climate of hysteria on the West Coast. Influential figures like Earl Warren, then Attorney General of California, and John L. DeWitt, head of the Western Defense Command, advocated for mass removal, arguing military necessity despite a lack of evidence. This pressure converged in Washington, D.C., where officials like Henry L. Stimson and John J. McCloy advised the president.

Issuance and provisions

President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the document at the White House without significant debate within his cabinet. The text of the order was deliberately broad, granting the Secretary of War and designated military commanders the power to prescribe "military areas" and enforce "whatever restrictions" they deemed necessary. It did not mention Japanese Americans specifically, but its implementation was almost exclusively directed at them. The War Relocation Authority was subsequently created by a second order, Executive Order 9102, to manage the logistics of the mass incarceration program.

Implementation and incarceration

Under the authority of the order, John L. DeWitt issued a series of Public Proclamations designating the entire states of California, Washington, Oregon, and parts of Arizona as military zones. Japanese Americans were given short notice to dispose of their property and report to temporary assembly centers, often located at facilities like the Santa Anita Park racetrack. They were then transported to ten remote, hastily constructed internment camps, including Manzanar in California and Heart Mountain Relocation Center in Wyoming. Conditions in these camps, surrounded by barbed wire and guarded by military police, were harsh and characterized by overcrowding and inadequate facilities.

Legal challenges

The constitutionality of the order was challenged in several landmark Supreme Court cases. In Korematsu v. United States (1944), the Court, in a controversial 6-3 decision, upheld the exclusion orders as a wartime necessity, deferring to the military judgment of the government. In Ex parte Endo (1944), decided the same day, the Court ruled that the War Relocation Authority could not detain a concededly loyal citizen, a decision that hastened the closing of the camps. Fred Korematsu and Mitsuye Endo became central figures in these legal battles.

Aftermath and legacy

The last internment camp closed in 1946, but former incarcerees faced significant hardship rebuilding their lives and communities, having lost an estimated billions in property and assets. The event cast a long shadow, becoming a defining example of racial injustice and the dangers of unchecked executive power during wartime. It profoundly influenced the Japanese American community and later movements for civil and political rights, serving as a cautionary tale in debates over national security and ethnic profiling.

Revocation and reparations

Decades later, a movement for redress gained momentum, led by groups like the Japanese American Citizens League. In 1976, President Gerald Ford formally rescinded Executive Order 9066 via Proclamation 4417. The Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, established by Congress, concluded in 1983 that the incarceration was caused by "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership." This led to the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, signed by President Ronald Reagan, which issued a formal apology and provided symbolic reparations of $20,000 to surviving incarcerees.

Category:United States executive orders Category:Japanese-American internment Category:1942 in American law