American Expeditionary Forces

American Expeditionary Forces
The Institute of Heraldry · Public domain · source
Unit name	American Expeditionary Forces
Caption	Shoulder sleeve insignia of the AEF
Dates	1917–1920
Country	United States
Branch	United States Army
Type	Expeditionary warfare
Size	~2,000,000 deployed
Garrison	Chaumont, France
Garrison label	Headquarters
Nickname	AEF
Battles	World War I, Western Front
Commander1	General John J. Pershing
Commander1 label	Commander

American Expeditionary Forces. The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) was the United States Army formation that fought on the Western Front in World War I under the command of General John J. Pershing. While primarily a military endeavor, the AEF's experience, particularly its policies of racial segregation and the service of African Americans, became a significant catalyst for the burgeoning civil rights movement in the early 20th century. The contradiction between fighting for democracy abroad and enduring discrimination at home fueled a new wave of advocacy and protest upon the soldiers' return.

Formation and Deployment

Following the U.S. declaration of war in April 1917, the Woodrow Wilson administration and the War Department rapidly organized the AEF. General John J. Pershing was appointed commander and insisted on maintaining the AEF as a distinct, independent force under American command rather than having its units amalgamated into existing Allied armies. The first units, including the 1st Infantry Division, arrived in France in June 1917. The main body of the AEF, ultimately numbering nearly two million men, deployed through ports like Saint-Nazaire and Brest. Major American involvement in combat began in earnest in 1918 at battles such as Cantigny, Belleau Wood, and the Meuse–Argonne offensive, the latter being the AEF's largest and deadliest campaign. The mobilization drew from a cross-section of American society, including National Guard and draftee units, setting the stage for profound social interactions and tensions.

Racial Segregation and Discrimination

The AEF reflected and enforced the Jim Crow policies prevalent in the United States at the time. The War Department, influenced by Southern officials and prevailing racial theories, maintained strict racial segregation throughout the force. Most African Americans in the AEF were assigned to labor and service units, such as the Stevedore regiments, under the assumption they were unfit for combat. These units performed critical but grueling work unloading ships, building roads, and digging latrines, often under white officers who held prejudiced views. The U.S. Army's policy extended to interactions with French civilians and soldiers; the AEF command issued directives warning the French against treating Black soldiers as social equals, fearing it would undermine racial hierarchies. This institutional discrimination created a stark contrast with the stated war aims of making the world "safe for democracy."

African American Units and Service

Despite the barriers, several African American combat units earned distinction. The most famous was the 369th Infantry Regiment, nicknamed the "Harlem Hellfighters." This National Guard unit from New York was assigned to the French Army for much of the war due to American reluctance to use Black combat troops. Fighting with the French, the 369th spent 191 days in the front lines, more than any other American unit, and never lost a trench or had a man captured. The regiment's band, led by James Reese Europe, famously introduced jazz to European audiences. Other notable units included the 370th Infantry Regiment and the 92nd Infantry Division, though the latter faced intense prejudice from its own command. The valor of these soldiers, recognized with numerous French awards like the Croix de Guerre, provided powerful evidence against racist claims of Black inferiority and became a central point of pride and argument for civil rights leaders.

Impact on Civil Rights Advocacy

The service and treatment of Black soldiers in the AEF had a galvanizing effect on civil rights advocacy. Organizations like the NAACP, led by figures such as W. E. B. Du Bois, used the soldiers' sacrifices to highlight the hypocrisy of American society. Du Bois famously urged African Americans to "close ranks" and support the war effort, while simultaneously preparing to "return fighting" for their rights at home. Publications like The Crisis, the NAACP's magazine, extensively covered the achievements of units like the Harlem Hellfighters and the injustices they faced. This narrative framed the war as a double victory: against militarism abroad and for democracy at home. The experience also fostered a new sense of militancy and determination among veterans themselves, who were less willing to accept second-class citizenship after risking their lives for their country.

Return to the United States and Legacy

The return of AEF veterans in 1919 precipitated a period of intense racial conflict known as the "Red Summer," including violent riots in cities like Chicago and Washington, D.C.. Many white communities, fearing changed social dynamics, targeted Black veterans, sometimes while they were still in uniform. This violence, coupled with the veterans' heightened expectations, accelerated civil rights activism. The legacy of the AEF's Black soldiers directly influenced the civil rights movement in subsequent decades. Their service was cited in arguments leading to the desegregation of the U.S. armed forces by President Harry S. Truman's Executive Order 9981 in 1948. Furthermore, the "Double V campaign" during World War II—victory over fascism abroad and racism at home—directly echoed the advocacy born from the AEF experience. The story of the AEF thus stands as a critical chapter in the long American struggle for equality, demonstrating how national service in times of crisis can powerfully challenge entrenched social injustices.