midterm elections (United States)

midterm elections (United States)
Name	Midterm elections (United States)
Type	Legislative and state
Date	Every even-numbered year, midpoint of presidential term
Seats for election	United States Senate, United States House of Representatives, governors, state legislatures, local offices

Contents

midterm elections (United States) are general elections held in the United States in even-numbered years between presidential elections that select members of the United States Congress, state executives, and local officials. They influence the composition of the United States Senate, the United States House of Representatives, and governorships, and interact with institutions such as the Federal Election Commission, the Supreme Court of the United States, and state secretaries of state.

Overview

Midterm cycles determine control of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives and often reshape party power for leaders like the Speaker of the House or Senate majority leaders, affecting legislative agendas tied to figures such as Nancy Pelosi, Mitch McConnell, Chuck Schumer, and Kevin McCarthy. Midterms also elect governors who can influence appointments to state courts, including jurists connected to the Judicial Conference of the United States and litigants appearing before the Supreme Court of the United States. Key institutions involved include the Federal Election Commission, the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 as implemented by state election officials like the California Secretary of State and the Georgia Secretary of State.

Origins trace to early Congresses under leaders such as George Washington and events like the Election of 1796; partisan patterns evolved through eras including the Jacksonian democracy period, the Civil War and Reconstruction, and the New Deal coalition shaped by Franklin D. Roosevelt. Midterms produced landmark shifts in the Great Depression era and during the Civil Rights Movement influenced by legislators like Lyndon B. Johnson and Barry Goldwater. The Watergate scandal and the 1974 United States elections altered public trust, while later cycles such as the 1994 United States elections and the 2010 United States elections reflected movements tied to figures like Bill Clinton, Ronald Reagan, Barack Obama, and the Tea Party movement. Reforms like the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and decisions from the Supreme Court of the United States—including cases like Shelby County v. Holder—have reshaped administration and coverage.

Midterms occur in even-numbered years on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, governed by statutes and precedents from the United States Congress and state constitutions such as the Constitution of the State of New York and California Constitution. All seats in the United States House of Representatives and approximately one-third of United States Senate seats are contested, following schedules established after each United States census and Apportionment Acts. Governors and state legislators follow staggered terms in states such as Texas, Florida, and Ohio, with ballot administration by county clerks and secretaries like the Cook County Clerk or the Maricopa County Recorder, subject to laws including the Help America Vote Act of 2002 and litigation in venues like the United States District Court for the District of Columbia.

Turnout patterns show lower participation than United States presidential election years, with demographic variations among groups identified in analyses of data from the United States Census Bureau, the Pew Research Center, and exit polls conducted by organizations like the Associated Press and The New York Times. Age cohorts, racial and ethnic groups including African Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans display differing turnout influenced by mobilization efforts from parties such as the Democratic Party (United States) and the Republican Party (United States), interest groups like the National Rifle Association and Emily's List, and grassroots organizers inspired by events like the Black Lives Matter demonstrations. Socioeconomic indicators reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics interact with campaign appeals from politicians such as Joe Biden or Donald Trump and policy debates over legislation like the Affordable Care Act.

Midterms can change legislative control and influence confirmation of executive appointees nominated by presidents such as Donald Trump or Joe Biden, affecting the passage or blocking of legislation linked to figures including Paul Ryan or Harry Reid. Shifts affect budget negotiations involving the United States Department of the Treasury, debt-ceiling debates with leaders like Kevin McCarthy, and oversight through committees chaired by members like Bennie Thompson or Jim Jordan. Outcomes reverberate in state policy on issues litigated in courts like the Supreme Court of the United States and in federal agencies including the Department of Justice and the Federal Communications Commission.

Several midterms are historically notable: the 1894 United States elections marking Gilded Age realignment; the 1934 United States elections during the Great Depression; the 1946 United States elections following World War II; the 1966 United States elections amid the Vietnam War; the 1994 United States elections led by the Contract with America and figures like Newt Gingrich; the 2006 United States elections after the Iraq War with leaders such as Nancy Pelosi; and the 2010 United States elections dominated by the Tea Party movement and politicians like Sarah Palin. More recent cycles include the 2018 United States elections associated with figures like Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and the 2022 United States elections involving contests around personalities such as Ron DeSantis and Gavin Newsom.

Campaigns in midterms rely on fundraising regulated by the Federal Election Commission and influenced by organizations like Citizens United-related entities, Political Action Committees including Super PACs, and party committees like the Democratic National Committee and the Republican National Committee. Media ecosystems featuring outlets such as The Washington Post, Fox News, CNN, and digital platforms like Twitter and Facebook shape messaging alongside consulting firms like Cambridge Analytica-associated actors and political operatives including Karl Rove and David Axelrod. Advertising buys, data analytics from firms tied to the National Republican Congressional Committee or the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, and legal frameworks including the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act influence voter contact, while debates in venues like Carnegie Mellon University and reports by the Federal Election Commission document expenditures and strategies.