World War II special forces
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| World War II special forces | |
|---|---|
| Unit name | Special forces of the Second World War |
| Dates | 1939–1945 |
| Country | Multiple states |
| Branch | Army, Navy, Air Force, Parachute, Marine |
| Type | Special operations forces |
| Role | Raiding, reconnaissance, sabotage, unconventional warfare |
| Notable commanders | \n |
World War II special forces were emergent, elite formations and ad hoc units developed during the World War II period to conduct reconnaissance, sabotage, direct action, and unconventional warfare. Forged in operations from the Battle of Britain to the Pacific War, these formations blended innovations from the British Special Operations Executive, United States Office of Strategic Services, Soviet partisan networks, and Axis units such as the Brandenburger Regiment. Their activities influenced doctrines at the Yalta Conference and postwar institutions like the Central Intelligence Agency and United States Army Special Forces.
Origins and doctrine
Origins trace to interwar experimenters such as the Finnish Civil Guard, Italian Arditi, and British Commandos established after the Norwegian Campaign. Early doctrine drew on lessons from the Gallipoli Campaign, First World War raiding, and the Spanish Civil War, informing techniques used by Special Air Service pioneers like David Stirling, No. 2 Commando founders, and parachute advocates linked to the Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom). Axis doctrinal developments appeared in formations like the German Abwehr's Brandenburgers and the Imperial Japanese Army's reconnaissance detachments during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Across theaters, doctrine emphasized Special Operations Executive-style sabotage, OSS clandestine insertion, and partisan warfare coordination with groups such as the Yugoslav Partisans under Josip Broz Tito and the Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa).
Major national units and formations
Major British formations included Special Air Service, Special Boat Service, Commandos, and the Special Operations Executive. American units included the Office of Strategic Services, 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment, and maritime units like the Underwater Demolition Teams precursor. Soviet contributions involved partisan units and NKVD reconnaissance detachments operating in coordination with the Red Army during operations such as the Battle of Stalingrad and Operation Bagration. Axis special units comprised the Brandenburger Regiment, Luftwaffe Fallschirmjäger formations, and Japanese Giretsu Kuteitai raiders. Other national units included the French Maquis, Polish Cichociemni, Norwegian Kompani Linge, Greek Sacred Band, Chinese Kuomintang irregulars, and colonial units tied to the Free French Forces under Charles de Gaulle.
Notable operations and missions
Notable raids and missions included Operation Chariot (St Nazaire raid), Operation Flipper against Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, Operation Postmaster, and Operation Anniversary at Dieppe Raid contexts involving commandos and Royal Navy support. SOE- and OSS-backed missions included supply to the Greek Resistance during Battle of Crete, support for Yugoslav Partisans in Operation Halyard, and the OSS-led Operation Jedburgh liaison drops during the Normandy landings in Operation Overlord. SAS operations in the North African Campaign and Operation Bulbasket in France showed desert and guerrilla adaptations, while Soviet partisan sabotage supported Operation Bagration. Pacific operations included Guadalcanal Campaign reconnaissance, Makin Raid, and Giretsu strikes during the Battle of Okinawa. High-profile targeted actions involved the capture or assassination attempts on figures linked to Erwin Rommel and efforts against German nuclear research initiatives.
Training, selection, and equipment
Training drew on prewar mountain and commando schools such as Achnacarry Commando Training Centre, airborne schools at RAF Ringway, and OSS training at Camp X and SS training centers in the US. Selection emphasized endurance tested in contexts like the Shetland Bus operations and Arctic insertion training tied to Operation Fritham. Equipment innovation featured adaptations of the Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife, Sten gun, Lee–Enfield rifles, Bren gun, M1 Garand, Bazooka, PIAT, folding boats, submersibles such as Chariot (human torpedo), and early use of Morris C8 vehicles and captured Sd.Kfz. vehicles. Maritime units trained with HMS Campbeltown-style conversions, collapsible folboats, and rendezvous techniques used by SOE and SBS units.
Organization, tactics, and innovations
Organization ranged from small raiding troops in No. 2 Commando to theater-level special forces coordination by Special Operations Executive liaison staffs and OSS branches such as SSU (Secret Service Unit). Tactics included long-range penetration warfare observed in Long Range Desert Group operations, coastal strike techniques by Special Boat Service, airborne insertion exemplified by the Operation Market Garden airborne components, and coordination with resistance movements like Polish Home Army and French Resistance. Innovations encompassed parachute delivery of specialists, use of wireless sets and SOE wireless procedures, clandestine airstrips like Little St Joseph, camouflage and deception methods used in Operation Bodyguard contexts, and combined arms raids integrating Royal Air Force and naval gunfire support.
Impact and legacy on postwar special forces
Postwar influence is evident in the formation of institutions such as the Central Intelligence Agency, the United States Army Special Forces (Green Berets), retention of SAS and SBS traditions, and adoption of partisan and counterinsurgency techniques in Korean War and Malayan Emergency conflicts. Doctrinal echoes appear in NATO special operations coordination at NATO forums, the professionalization of selection systems modeled on Achnacarry, and weapon innovations migrated into Cold War toolkits including STEN derivatives and specialist diving gear advanced from Chariot (human torpedo) work. Veterans from units like the OSS, SOE, Long Range Desert Group, and Cichociemni helped staff postwar intelligence and military organizations, shaping policy in institutions such as the MI6 successor and influencing operations during the Suez Crisis and beyond.