Special Forces

Special Forces
U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Clayton Cupit · Public domain · source
Unit name	Special Forces
Type	Special operations
Role	unconventional warfare, counterterrorism, reconnaissance
Size	variable

Special Forces are elite military units trained to conduct high-risk operations beyond the scope of conventional forces. They operate in complex environments involving World War II, Cold War, War on Terror, Falklands War, Gulf War, Korean War, and Vietnam War, performing missions that require advanced skills in reconnaissance, direct action, and unconventional warfare. Nations from United States to United Kingdom, Russia, China, France, Israel, India, Pakistan, Australia, Canada, Germany, Brazil, South Africa, and Japan maintain such units integrated into broader defense and intelligence structures.

History

Origins trace to specialized formations in World War I, including raiding parties and commando-like units active during the Gallipoli Campaign and Western Front. Formalization occurred in World War II with formations like the British Commandos, United States Office of Strategic Services, Special Air Service, Marine Raiders, Long Range Desert Group, and partisan operations tied to the Operation Overlord preparations and Operation Husky. Postwar evolution was shaped by Algerian War, Malayan Emergency, and clandestine operations during the Cold War, exemplified by Special Activities Division, KGB, GRU, and NATO planning tied to the Warsaw Pact. The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw expansion after events such as the Iranian Revolution, Soviet–Afghan War, 9/11 attacks, and the subsequent War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), driving doctrinal shifts and interagency cooperation with entities like Central Intelligence Agency and MI6.

Roles and missions

Typical missions include unconventional warfare, counterterrorism, hostage rescue, special reconnaissance, direct action, and foreign internal defense. Tasks often support campaigns in theaters like Iraq War, Syrian Civil War, Somalia Intervention (1992–1995), and Kosovo War alongside stability operations and training partner forces such as during the Philippine–American conflict and advisory roles similar to those executed in Operation Enduring Freedom. They may conduct maritime interdiction in contexts related to Operation Atalanta, counter-narcotics analogous to missions in Colombia, or protection duties reminiscent of scenarios around Embassy of the United States evacuations.

Organization and selection

Units vary from battalion-sized regiments to small detachments embedded within national commands like United States Special Operations Command, SASR, GOE, GIGN, KSK, Spetsnaz, Shayetet 13, Parachute Regiment elements, and MARCOS. Selection pipelines are rigorous: screening phases mirror programs like U.S. Army Special Forces Selection and SAS selection, involving endurance marches tied to historical events such as the Long Range Desert Group operations and cold-weather trials in regions like Svalbard or Karakoram. Personnel often come from service branches including United States Army Rangers, Royal Marines, Israeli Defense Forces, People's Liberation Army Navy Marine Corps, and paramilitary wings like GIGN or Carabinieri.

Training and doctrine

Training emphasizes small-unit tactics, language skills, cultural training, demolitions, advanced marksmanship, and medical care. Doctrines draw from manuals and case studies involving FM 3-05 (United States), historical lessons from Operation Market Garden, Bay of Pigs Invasion, Operation Entebbe, and counterinsurgency theory influenced by David Galula and events in Algeria. Interoperability standards align with exercises like Red Flag, Exercise RIMPAC, Exercise Talisman Sabre, and NATO frameworks stemming from NATO SOF Working Group. Cross-training occurs with police units such as FBI SWAT in hostage scenarios and with intelligence services including MI5 and GRU liaison teams.

Equipment and capabilities

Equipment ranges from precision small arms—types used by entities like U.S. Navy SEALs and Delta Force—to specialized vehicles, aircraft, and naval platforms. Air mobility uses aircraft like the Lockheed C-130 Hercules, Boeing CH-47 Chinook, and helicopters from Sikorsky portfolios; rotary-wing insertion techniques reference Operation Gothic Serpent. Maritime operations employ craft similar to those used by Shayetet 13 and Special Boat Service, as well as submersible technologies explored in Office of Naval Research projects. Technologies include advanced optics from manufacturers used by NATO, unmanned systems seen in MQ-9 Reaper deployments, and communications compatible with allied networks such as Link 16. Protective gear reflects standards implemented after incidents like Black Hawk Down.

Notable units and national special forces

Prominent examples include U.S. Army Special Forces, United States Navy SEALs, Delta Force, British Special Air Service, Special Boat Service, GIGN, KSK, Russian Spetsnaz GRU, Israeli Sayeret Matkal, Indian MARCOS, Pakistani Special Services Group, Australian Special Air Service Regiment, Canadian Joint Task Force 2, Brazilian BOPE, South African Special Forces Brigade, Japanese Special Forces Group, Turkish Maroon Berets, Polish GROM, and Spanish UOE among others. Historical units of note include Long Range Desert Group, British Commandos, Marine Raiders, and OSS Operational Groups.

Controversies and legal issues

Operations have raised issues under international law, human rights, and rules of engagement in contexts such as rendition programs linked to United States Department of Justice reviews, targeted strikes debated after incidents in Yemen and Pakistan, and detention controversies tied to Guantanamo Bay detention camp. Allegations of unlawful operations have involved inquiries like those conducted by European Court of Human Rights and national oversight bodies including Inspector General of the Department of Defense reports. Accountability debates engage institutions such as International Criminal Court, parliamentary committees in United Kingdom, United States Congress, and national courts in Brazil and France.

Category:Military units and formations