White Out

White Out
Name	White Out
Other names	Correction fluid, correction liquid
Caption	Bottle of correction fluid
Type	Liquid paint
Main components	Titanium dioxide, solvents, resins, pigments
First introduced	1950s
Invented by	Bette Nesmith Graham

White Out is a commercially produced correction fluid used to mask ink and printed text on paper. It was invented in the mid-20th century and became widely adopted in offices, newspaperrooms, publishing houses, and government offices. The product intersects with developments in photocopier technology, typewriter use, and later digital desktop publishing workflows.

Etymology and Terminology

The name derives from a compound English phrase combining "white" and "out" and entered popular vocabulary through commercial branding and everyday use in United States offices during the 1950s and 1960s. Key commercial marques and trademark disputes involved companies such as Mistake Out, Inc. and Liquid Paper Corporation founded by Bette Nesmith Graham, who later sold her company to Gillette Company; other firms included Swift Publishing and Crown Cork & Seal Company. Industry publications like Fortune (magazine) and The Wall Street Journal chronicled market expansion alongside legal cases in courts such as the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit and patent filings with the United States Patent and Trademark Office.

Types and Formulations

Formulations evolved from solvent-based to water-based systems. Early solvent-based products contained volatile organic compounds similar to those discussed in regulations from the Environmental Protection Agency and standards from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Components include pigments like titanium dioxide used in many paint and coating applications, alkyd or acrylic resins used by manufacturers such as Sherwin-Williams and Behr Paint Company, and solvents comparable to those regulated under Clean Air Act amendments. Alternative product types include quick-drying brush-applied fluids, pen-like correction pens marketed by companies like Pilot Corporation and Pentel Co., Ltd., and correction tapes developed in firms such as Tombow and 3M that avoid liquid solvents altogether. Specialty formulations were created for archival use by institutions like the Library of Congress and British Library to meet conservation guidelines.

Uses and Applications

Correction fluid found uses in office clerical tasks at institutions such as United Nations offices, White House administrative staff, and editorial departments of The New York Times, enabling immediate correction on documents produced by typewriters, dot matrix printers, and early laser printers. Graphic designers at studios using equipment from Apple Inc. and Adobe Systems later shifted to digital correction but still referenced manual techniques in proofing processes. Correction fluid has been applied in arts and crafts by practitioners influenced by movements represented in collections at the Museum of Modern Art, Tate Modern, and Guggenheim Museum, and used by illustrators who have exhibited at the Society of Illustrators. In the classroom, materials from school districts like New York City Department of Education included correction tools alongside stationery from firms such as Staples, Inc. and Office Depot. Correction fluids also featured in legal workflows at courthouses like the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York where document presentation norms evolved.

Health and Safety Considerations

Health concerns prompted scrutiny by regulatory bodies including the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the Consumer Product Safety Commission after reports of solvent inhalation. Chemicals used raised issues similar to those in advice issued by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and warnings in publications by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Workplace safety standards at corporations like General Electric and IBM required Material Safety Data Sheets comparable to those for other chemical products. High-profile public-health discussions in outlets such as The Lancet and New England Journal of Medicine examined acute and chronic effects of volatile organic compound exposure, paralleling concerns documented in studies from institutions like Johns Hopkins University and Harvard School of Public Health.

Environmental Impact and Disposal

Environmental assessments linked solvent-based correction fluids to broader concerns addressed by the Environmental Protection Agency and initiatives like the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Manufacturing and disposal practices were compared with waste management protocols of municipal systems such as those overseen by the New York City Department of Sanitation and Los Angeles Sanitation. Recycling and hazardous-waste collection programs at facilities like Waste Management, Inc. and services coordinated by EPA Superfund sites influenced the shift towards low-VOC and water-based formulations sold by companies including 3M and S.C. Johnson & Son. Museums and archives coordinated disposal guidance with agencies such as the Smithsonian Institution conservation departments.

Cultural and Historical Context

The invention and commercialization of correction fluid intersected with mid-century social and economic trends documented in histories of post–World War II economic expansion and corporate narratives featured in Time (magazine). Inventor Bette Nesmith Graham became a notable figure in entrepreneurship and women's business history, discussed in biographies and corporate case studies at business schools such as Harvard Business School and Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Correction fluid appeared in popular culture references in films cataloged by the American Film Institute and in literature analyzed in programs at the Modern Language Association. Ephemera from office supply history are preserved in collections at institutions like the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History and the Bodleian Libraries.

Category:Office supplies