Wahabism

Wahabism
Name	Wahabism
Type	Sunni Islamic revivalist movement
Theology	Salafism
Main area	Arabian Peninsula, Saudi Arabia, Gulf States
Founder	Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
Founded date	18th century
Founded place	Najd

Wahabism is a Sunni Islamic reform movement originating in the 18th century Arabian Peninsula that advocates a return to practices associated with early Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphs. It arose in Najd and later aligned politically with the House of Al Saud to create institutions in what became the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The movement's proponents emphasize scriptural literalism and opposition to certain popular religious practices associated with later Sufism, Shi'a Islam, and folk traditions.

Etymology and terminology

The eponymous label originates from the family name of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, used in many Western and regional sources; alternative labels include Salafism, Athari theology, and terms derived from contemporaneous Ottoman and Persian sources. Historiographical debates over nomenclature invoke scholarship from John Wilkinson, Madawi al-Rasheed, Natana DeLong-Bas, and others who contrast usage in British Colonial India, Ottoman archives in Istanbul, and European Orientalist works in Paris and London. Regional media in Cairo, Beirut, and Tehran have applied competing terms in political contexts involving the House of Saud, the Wahhabi–Saudi alliance, and 20th‑century diplomats from Washington, D.C. and Moscow.

Historical origins and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, born in Uyayna (Najd) and educated in Basra, returned to Najd and allied with Muhammad ibn Saud of Diriyah in the 1740s, producing a politico-religious pact that reshaped central Arabian power dynamics. This alliance precipitated conflicts with Ottoman provincial authorities in Yemen, the emirates in Bahrain, and tribal confederations such as the Anaza and Banu Khalid. Key episodes include military engagements near Riyadh and sieges impacting Najdi centers, diplomatic correspondences with the Ottoman Porte in Istanbul, and interactions with intellectuals in Cairo and Damascus. British observers from Bombay and missionaries in Alexandria recorded early encounters; later travelers including Charles Doughty and scholars such as William Palgrave documented social transformations during travels through Najd and Hijaz.

Doctrinal beliefs and theology

Core theological positions emphasize adherence to the Qur'an and Hadith collections like those of Bukhari and Muslim, and a model of piety drawn from the Salaf al-Salih including the companions of Muhammad. The movement rejects theological schools associated with speculative kalam linked to thinkers in Kufa and Basra, and it objects to practices venerated in many Sufi orders such as the Qadiriyya, Naqshbandiyya, Shadhiliyya, and Chishtiyya. Theological antagonists historically included clerics from Najran and Karbala, scholars aligned with the Ash'ari and Maturidi traditions, and jurists from Cairo's Al-Azhar and Damascus's Umayyad scholarly circles. Reformist interpreters in the 20th century, including figures in Riyadh and expatriate communities in Karachi and Kuwait City, produced fatwas and treatises debating anthropomorphic language about God and the use of ijma' and qiyas.

Legal views and jurisprudence

Legal orientations favor a selective engagement with the four classical Sunni madhhabs such as the Hanbali madhhab, often privileging literalist Hanbali positions while rejecting practices judged as bid'ah (innovation). Jurisprudential discourse engaged jurists from Iraq, Hejaz, and Syria, responding to questions about wakf endowments, criminal penalties, and commercial contracts in Najdi markets. Institutions in Riyadh and the historic Diriyah state codified interpretations used in courts alongside Ottoman and later British legal influences observed in Aden and Trucial States legal pluralism. Debates involving scholars from Makkah and Medina addressed pilgrimage rites and the status of shrines linked to figures buried in Uyayna, Hail, and Qaryat al-Faw.

Political history and state formation in Saudi Arabia

The alliance between the movement's followers and the House of Al Saud catalyzed territorial expansion and governance in Najd, leading to the First and Second Saudi States and later the formation of the modern Kingdom under Abdulaziz ibn Ibn Saud in the 20th century. Military conflicts with the Ottoman-backed Sharif of Mecca, the Al Rashid dynasty in Ha'il, and interventions by British India and later Gulf protectorates shaped borders that became Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates. The movement influenced ruling institutions such as the Council of Senior Scholars and ministries in Riyadh and affected foreign policy with capitals like Tehran, Cairo, Ankara, and Washington, D.C..

Social and cultural impact

Social reforms impacted religious education in madrasas across Najd, the curriculum of Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh, and funding networks in Bahrain, Qatar, and London. Cultural effects appeared in architecture near the Masjid al-Haram and historic funerary practices in Medina and prompted migrations of tribal groups including the Subai'. Media and publishing from Jeddah, Dubai, and Beirut disseminated tracts, while diaspora communities in Toronto, Berlin, and Sydney engaged with religious outreach and charity networks coordinated with Gulf foundations. Gender roles, dress codes, and legal practices in family law courts in Riyadh and regional monarchies show intersections between clerical edicts and state legislation.

Criticism, controversies, and reforms

Critics from scholars at Al-Azhar, human rights organizations in Geneva, reformist intellectuals in Cairo, and dissidents in Riyadh have highlighted issues including doctrinal rigidity, restrictions on Shi'a communities in Qatif and Al-Ahsa, and the treatment of cultural heritage sites. International incidents involving veterans of militant groups, debates in Washington, D.C. and London about ideology exportation, and internal Saudi reform initiatives under Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman prompted policy shifts in tourism, education, and religious institutions. Reform-minded scholars in Riyadh, activists in Manama, and jurists in Istanbul continue to contest interpretations through legal opinion, academic publication, and civil society engagement.

Category:Sunni Islam