UN Safe Areas
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| UN Safe Areas | |
|---|---|
| Name | UN Safe Areas |
| Established | 1993 |
| Jurisdiction | United Nations Security Council |
| Type | Humanitarian protection zones |
UN Safe Areas were designated protection zones created by the United Nations Security Council during the Bosnian War to shelter civilians from armed attack and to facilitate humanitarian assistance. Proposed during debates among Member States of the United Nations, the areas became a focal point of international diplomacy, military engagement, and legal dispute involving organizations and actors such as the United Nations Protection Force, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, and various warring parties including the Army of the Republika Srpska, the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Army of Republika Srpska Krajina. The concept raised questions in contexts linked to the Geneva Conventions, the Vance-Owen Plan, and resolutions like United Nations Security Council Resolution 824 (1993).
Background and Definition
The Safe Areas concept emerged amid the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the siege of Sarajevo (1992–1996), the Srebrenica massacre, and other episodes that drew attention from the European Union, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and humanitarian organizations such as International Committee of the Red Cross, Médecins Sans Frontières, and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Debates involved leaders and figures including Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Carl Bildt, Lord Owen, Richard Holbrooke, François Mitterrand, and Willy Claes. Definitions were influenced by precedents like safe haven (Iraq), no-fly zone (Iraq, 1991), and by doctrines articulated after events such as the Rwandan Genocide and the Soviet–Afghan War.
Establishment and Legal Basis
Designations were made through United Nations Security Council Resolution 824 (1993), Resolution 836 (1993), and other resolutions debated in the Security Council of the United Nations. Legal discussions invoked the Charter of the United Nations, the Geneva Conventions, customary international law adjudicated by the International Court of Justice, and jurisprudence from the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and later the International Criminal Court. Key diplomatic actors included delegations from United States Department of State, the Russian Federation, United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office, French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and representatives from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The legal basis intersected with operational mandates assigned to the United Nations Protection Force and rules of engagement shaped by consultations with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization Council.
Implementation and Operations
Operationally, Safe Areas relied on UNPROFOR units drawn from contingents provided by United Kingdom Armed Forces, Dutchbat, French Armed Forces, Turkish Land Forces, Polish Land Forces, Ukrainian Ground Forces, Bangladesh Armed Forces, and other troop-contributing countries including India, Pakistan, and Argentina. Coordination involved the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, UNICEF, World Food Programme, and non-governmental actors such as Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement affiliates. Air support and enforcement options were negotiated with NATO, including assets from Operation Deny Flight, Operation Deliberate Force, and sorties linked to command structures like Allied Force. Commanders and officials such as General Michael Rose, Lt. Gen. Sir Rupert Smith, Brigadier-General Philippe Morillon, and Major General Lewis MacKenzie became visible in reporting. Logistics, humanitarian corridors, demilitarization efforts, and coordination with local authorities—municipalities in Srebrenica, Zepa, Gorazde, Sarajevo, Tuzla—shaped day-to-day operations.
Case Studies (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Designated Safe Areas included Srebrenica, Zepa, Gorazde, Bihac, Tuzla, and Sarajevo. The fall of Srebrenica (July 1995) involved units from Dutchbat, forces of the Army of Republika Srpska, political actors such as Radovan Karadzic and military commanders like Ratko Mladic, and international responses from United States Armed Forces and NATO leadership including Wesley Clark and Hillary Clinton's later commentary. The Srebrenica massacre and the seizure of other enclaves led to indictments at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia against figures including Karadzic and Mladic, cases that influenced proceedings at the International Court of Justice brought by Bosnia and Herzegovina against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Documentation and reporting from entities such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, The New York Times, BBC News, and The Washington Post traced failures in protection, evacuation, and rules of engagement.
Controversies and Criticisms
Critics included scholars in institutions like Columbia University, Harvard University, King’s College London, and policy analysts from Chatham House and the Brookings Institution. Contentions focused on limited mandates set by United Nations Security Council resolutions, ambiguous rules of engagement, insufficient troop strength, and political constraints imposed by capitals such as Washington, D.C., Moscow, London, Paris, and Belgrade. Legal critiques referenced decisions in the International Court of Justice and judgments by the ICTY addressing command responsibility, complicity, and failure to prevent genocide. Media investigations by outlets including The Guardian, Der Spiegel, Le Monde, and TIME (magazine) probed the roles of specific battalions and commanders, while veterans and policymakers including Lord Owen and General Rupert Smith debated policy alternatives like robust mandates, expanded NATO enforcement, or regional interventions.
Aftermath and Legacy
Outcomes influenced reforms within the United Nations Department of Peace Operations, doctrines on responsibility to protect, practice in subsequent missions such as UNAMIR, UNPROFOR (Kosovo), and operations in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Côte d'Ivoire. Legal legacies extended to jurisprudence at the International Criminal Court and to policies adopted by the European Union and NATO regarding civilian protection, peace enforcement, and humanitarian intervention. Memorialization efforts include museums and sites in Srebrenica-Potočari Memorial and Cemetery, initiatives by Amnesty International, and scholarly work published by presses such as Oxford University Press and Cambridge University Press. Debates about mandate clarity, rules of engagement, and the balance between impartiality and protection continue to inform peacekeeping discourse in forums like the United Nations General Assembly and United Nations Security Council meetings.