South Sudanese Civil War

South Sudanese Civil War
Ali Zifan · CC BY-SA 4.0 · source
Conflict	South Sudanese Civil War
Date	December 2013 – 2018 (major hostilities) and ongoing low‑intensity conflict
Place	Juba, Unity State, Upper Nile, Lakes State, Western Bahr el Ghazal, Central Equatoria
Combatant1	Sudan People's Liberation Movement factions, South Sudan Armed Forces
Combatant2	Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition, National Salvation Front, South Sudan United Front, Tiger Battalion (South Sudan)
Commander1	Salva Kiir, James Hoth Mai
Commander2	Riek Machar, Tobias H. Hagar

South Sudanese Civil War. The conflict erupted after independence and rapidly involved rival political leaders, ethnic militias, regional forces, and international actors, producing widespread displacement, famine, and prolonged negotiations. Fighting transformed local disputes in Jonglei State and Upper Nile into a national crisis that drew in neighboring states, transnational organizations, and global humanitarian agencies. Multiple ceasefires, peace accords, and transitional arrangements attempted to stabilize politics around leaders such as Salva Kiir and Riek Machar, while armed groups like the Tiger Battalion (South Sudan) and the National Salvation Front continued localized campaigns.

Background

Tensions traced to decades of conflict including the Second Sudanese Civil War and the legacy of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005), which led to the 2011 referendum creating South Sudan. Political rivalry within the Sudan People's Liberation Movement between Salva Kiir and Riek Machar intersected with ethnic divisions among Dinka people, Nuer people, and other groups in Jonglei State, Lakes State, and Unity State. Oil disputes involving Petroleum Development regions and institutions such as the Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company and cross-border claims with Sudan exacerbated economic strains. International actors including the United Nations Security Council, African Union, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, and United States Department of State monitored political developments while humanitarian organizations like United Nations Mission in South Sudan and International Committee of the Red Cross prepared contingency responses.

Outbreak of Conflict (2013)

In December 2013 political clashes in Juba followed a purge of Sudan People's Liberation Movement figures during a national party meeting, pitting factions led by Salva Kiir against supporters of Riek Machar, Tobias H. Hagar, and allied commanders. Violence quickly spread to Bentiu, Malakal, and Bor, involving units of the South Sudan Armed Forces and rebel formations tracing lineage to the Sudan People's Liberation Army, while regional actors such as Sudan Armed Forces and militias in Ethiopia and Uganda adjusted positions. Reports of massacres and targeted attacks raised alarms at the United Nations Security Council, prompting debates over sanctions and deployment of a strengthened United Nations Mission in South Sudan mandate.

Major Phases and Frontlines

The war evolved through shifting phases: early urban clashes (2013–2014) centered on Juba, a period of front-line stalemate (2014–2016) across Unity State and Upper Nile, and renewed offensives after the collapse of the 2015 Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan that culminated in the 2016–2017 battles for Malakal and Bentiu. Key field commanders such as James Hoth Mai, Kuol Manyang Juuk, and Peter Gadet influenced battlefield dynamics, while splinter groups like the South Sudan United Front and the National Salvation Front opened new theaters in Western Equatoria and Eastern Equatoria. Neighboring states including Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Sudan engaged through peace initiatives, border security operations, and troop movements, and multilateral forces such as AMISOM and the United Nations Mission in South Sudan influenced ceasefire enforcement. The conflict featured sieges of towns like Bor and Wau, ambushes on oil infrastructure near Panyijar County, and militia campaigns in Jonglei State.

Humanitarian Impact and Atrocities

Widespread atrocities included ethnically targeted killings in Bentiu, mass rape reported near Yei River State and Juba, and forced recruitment of child soldiers linked to units formerly of the Sudan People's Liberation Army. The crisis displaced millions into internally displaced person camps in Juba, Bunj, and Wau and into refugee settlements in Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Sudan. Humanitarian agencies such as United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, World Food Programme, Médecins Sans Frontières, and Oxfam warned of famine conditions in counties like Leer County and Mayendit County, while reports by Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International documented war crimes and crimes against humanity. International prosecutions and accountability mechanisms involving the International Criminal Court and African Union were proposed amid debates over immunity for leaders and the role of the Hybrid Court for South Sudan.

Peace Efforts and Agreements

Peace diplomacy included mediated talks by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, the African Union Commission Chairperson, and envoys from the United States Department of State and United Kingdom Foreign Office, producing accords such as the 2015 Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan and the 2018 Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan. Mediators like Thabo Mbeki, Christopher A. Smith (politician), and Olusegun Obasanjo participated in negotiations, while guarantors such as United Nations Security Council members and regional leaders from Uganda and Kenya monitored implementation. Provisions covered power-sharing among the Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition and rivals, security sector reforms, and arrangements for transitional institutions in Juba; compliance varied as splinter groups and commanders such as Gatluak Gai and David Yau Yau reneged or reintegrated at different times.

Political and Socioeconomic Consequences

The conflict reshaped leadership in Juba and altered factional alliances across the Sudan People's Liberation Movement family, while prolonged instability undermined oil revenues managed in fields near Bentiu and pipelines linked to Port Sudan. Economic distress hit infrastructure overseen by agencies like the Ministry of Petroleum and Mining (South Sudan) and curtailed development projects funded by the World Bank and African Development Bank. Social institutions in Eastern Equatoria and regions of Western Bahr el Ghazal faced long-term effects including disrupted schooling in facilities associated with UNICEF, public health crises impacting campaigns by the World Health Organization, and increased intercommunal tensions involving Dinka people and Nuer people. Transitional governance arrangements sought to create inclusive cabinets and security integration under provisions referencing historical accords such as the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005), but persistent localized violence by groups like the National Salvation Front continued to challenge national reconciliation and reconstruction.

Category:Civil wars involving Africa