Second Sudanese Civil War

Second Sudanese Civil War
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Conflict	Second Sudanese Civil War
Partof	Sudanese Civil Wars
Date	1983–2005
Place	Sudan, primarily Southern Sudan, Blue Nile State, Nuba Mountains
Territory	Autonomy for Southern Sudan leading to South Sudan independence (2011)
Result	Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005); eventual independence of South Sudan
Combatant1	Government of Sudan; Sudan Armed Forces; Popular Defence Forces
Combatant2	Sudan People's Liberation Army; Sudan People's Liberation Movement
Commander1	Gaafar Nimeiry; Sadiq al-Mahdi; Omar al-Bashir
Commander2	John Garang

Second Sudanese Civil War The Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005) was a prolonged armed conflict primarily between the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Army/Sudan People's Liberation Movement in Southern Sudan, with major effects in the Blue Nile State and Nuba Mountains. The war involved leaders such as Gaafar Nimeiry, Sadiq al-Mahdi, Omar al-Bashir, and John Garang, and culminated in the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005) and the 2011 creation of South Sudan. The conflict intertwined with regional dynamics including relations with Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Egypt and shaped international responses from the United Nations, African Union, and United States.

Background and Causes

Political and legal shifts set the stage: the 1983 imposition of Sharia law under Gaafar Nimeiry and the 1983 abolition of the Abyei Protocol from the Addis Ababa Agreement (1972) renewed tensions with southern groups such as the Anya Nya remnants. Economic drivers included oil discoveries in Bahr el Ghazal and Upper Nile fields controlled by companies like Chevron Corporation, producing competition among elites in Khartoum and southern leaders. Ethnic and religious divisions involving Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Fur people, Mundari, and Fertit communities intersected with disputes over land in areas administered by Unity State, Jonglei State, and Lakes State. The emergence of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement under John Garang in 1983 followed clashes such as the Bor events and was influenced by regional conflicts including the Ethiopian Civil War and Ugandan Bush War.

Course of the War

The conflict began with the SPLA insurgency launching operations in Equatoria and Bahr el Ghazal, encountering counteroffensives by the Sudan Armed Forces supported by militias like the Beni Hussein and Popular Defence Forces. Major episodes included the 1987–1989 offensives, the 1991 SPLA split involving Riek Machar and Lam Akol, and the 1994–1996 expansion of Omar al-Bashir's regime after the 1993 coup. Battles and campaigns occurred around Malakal, Wau, Bentiu, Torit, and Kajo-Keji while cross-border dynamics involved Eritrea, Chad, and Central African Republic. The 1990s saw increasing use of air power by the Sudan Air Force including Antonov operations and ground offensives framed by alliances with National Islamic Front figures like Hassan al-Turabi. The SPLA split produced factions aligned with Khartoum at times and resulted in internecine violence such as the 1991–1992 clashes in Panyijar County and the 1994 Wunlit Conference-era processes. By the early 2000s, renewed diplomacy, the rise of oil export pipelines via Port Sudan, and shifts in regional patrons including Uganda People's Defence Force support for the SPLA altered military balances leading into negotiations.

Humanitarian Impact and Atrocities

The war produced massive humanitarian crises: widespread displacement into refugee camps in Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Democratic Republic of the Congo and internal displacement across Unity State and Jonglei State. Famines and epidemics affected populations around Bentiu and Malakal; relief operations involved International Committee of the Red Cross, Médecins Sans Frontières, and United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Documented atrocities attributed to various actors included indiscriminate aerial bombardment by the Sudan Air Force, village razings in Lakes Region, forced conscription by the SPLA and allied militias, and targeted massacres such as those in Bentiu region and counterinsurgency operations in the Nuba Mountains. Human rights reporting by Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International documented use of child soldiers, systematic sexual violence, and destruction of civilian infrastructure, contributing to protracted humanitarian emergencies and calls for accountability via mechanisms like the International Criminal Court.

Peace Processes and the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement

Multiple negotiations preceded the 2005 accord: talks hosted in Nairobi and mediated by figures including Johan Jørgensen allies and envoys from the Intergovernmental Authority on Development and the United States culminated in the Naivasha negotiations. The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005) between Omar al-Bashir's government and John Garang's SPLM provided arrangements for power-sharing, the future 2011 referendum, wealth-sharing over oil revenues, security arrangements, and protocols for Abyei Area and the Blue Nile and Nuba Mountains (South Kordofan) regions. Signatories included Salva Kiir and opposition figures; international guarantors included the United Nations Security Council, African Union, European Union, Norway, and United Kingdom.

Aftermath and Legacy

The CPA led to the 2005 creation of the Government of Southern Sudan and the elevation of Salva Kiir to leadership, culminating in the 2011 independence of South Sudan after the referendum endorsed by the CPA. However, unresolved issues persisted: disputes over Abyei, contested oil infrastructure in Unity State, and political rivalries between former SPLM leaders such as Riek Machar and Salva Kiir sparked the 2013 conflict. Transitional institutions arising from the CPA influenced subsequent processes including the Juba Declaration (2006) and international missions like the United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS). The war reshaped regional alignments, impacted Nile Basin Initiative politics involving Egypt and Sudan, and contributed to debates on humanitarian intervention and postconflict reconstruction led by actors such as World Bank and United Nations Development Programme.

International Involvement and Diplomacy

Diplomacy involved mediators and sponsors: the Intergovernmental Authority on Development facilitated regional talks while states including Norway, United Kingdom, United States, Egypt, and Ethiopia acted as guarantors. International organizations engaged via peacekeeping and humanitarian mandates: the United Nations through UNMIS, the African Union through high-level envoys, and NGOs like Norwegian Church Aid and International Rescue Committee provided relief. Sanctions and legal actions featured in international responses, including measures by the United States Department of the Treasury and investigations by the International Criminal Court relating to later conflicts. Bilateral relations—Uganda–Sudan relations, Egypt–Sudan relations, Kenya–Sudan relations—and interventions by regional militaries affected bargaining; private actors such as Chevron Corporation and international oil diplomacy shaped the incentives for ceasefire and settlement.

Category:Wars involving Sudan Category:Civil wars involving Africa