Skyscraper — LLMpedia

Skyscraper
David Shankbone · Public domain · source
Name	Skyscraper
Type	High-rise building

Contents

Skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building that redefines urban skyline profiles in cities such as New York City, Chicago, Hong Kong, Dubai, and London. Influenced by figures and institutions including Louis Sullivan, William Le Baron Jenney, Daniel Burnham, Norman Foster, and Zaha Hadid, skyscrapers combine advances from Industrial Revolution, innovations by firms like Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Foster + Partners, and Gensler, and regulatory frameworks in jurisdictions such as New York City zoning resolution, London Plan, and Dubai Municipality. Their development intersects with events and movements from the Great Depression to the postwar economic boom and trends shaped by entities like the International Code Council, Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, and funding sources including the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.

History

Early antecedents trace to masonry towers in Gothic architecture and the Industrial Revolution urbanization that influenced cities like Chicago and New York City. The emergence of skeleton-frame construction in the late 19th century involved practitioners such as William Le Baron Jenney and proponents including Daniel Burnham and Louis Sullivan, with projects tied to events like the World's Columbian Exposition (1893). The proliferation of high-rises accelerated during the Roaring Twenties and resumed after the Great Depression and World War II, driven by corporate headquarters for companies like Standard Oil, General Electric, and Chrysler Corporation. Postwar modernism saw contributions from architects such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, and firms like Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, while late 20th- and early 21st-century projects by Norman Foster, Renzo Piano, SOM, and KPF responded to globalization, investment from sovereign wealth funds like Abu Dhabi Investment Authority, and urban policies in Shanghai, Singapore, and Seoul.

Design processes engage architects such as Adrian Smith, engineers from Arup Group and Thornton Tomasetti, and contractors like Turner Construction Company and Bechtel. Projects must navigate planning regimes exemplified by Zoning Resolution of 1916, environmental regulation agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency, and financing structures involving banks like JPMorgan Chase, HSBC, and investment vehicles including BlackRock and KKR. Construction phases integrate technologies from manufacturers like Otis Elevator Company, KONE, and Schindler Group and rely on machinery by firms such as Caterpillar Inc. and Komatsu. Signature techniques include curtain wall systems advanced by companies like Arconic, prefabrication methods promoted by Skanska, and digital design workflows using software from Autodesk and Bentley Systems.

Structural systems range from steel framing pioneered by William Le Baron Jenney to reinforced concrete innovations used in projects by Rafael Viñoly and Jean Nouvel. Tube-frame designs popularized by Fazlur Rahman Khan and executed by engineers at SOM enabled heights in buildings like projects by Adrian Smith and Bill Baker. Materials include structural steel from producers like ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel, high-performance concrete developed with research from MIT and ETH Zurich, and glass façades by manufacturers such as Saint-Gobain. Seismic and wind engineering draws on standards from Eurocode and organizations like Federal Emergency Management Agency and design precedents in seismic regions including Tokyo, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. Innovations in damping systems cite work by firms like Raleigh Dynamics and research at institutions including University of Cambridge and Columbia University.

Skyscrapers serve corporate functions for tenants like Google, Amazon, Bank of America, and Goldman Sachs; hospitality uses by operators such as Marriott International, Hilton Worldwide, and Hyatt Hotels Corporation; residential developments marketed by developers like Related Companies and Tishman Speyer; and mixed-use complexes exemplified in projects financed by entities including Mitsubishi Estate and Hines. They accommodate cultural institutions similar to Museum of Modern Art, retail anchored by brands like Harrods and Saks Fifth Avenue, and public amenities shaped by municipal policies in Tokyo Metropolitan Government and Shanghai Municipal Government. Programming decisions often reflect corporate mergers, capital flows involving Goldman Sachs, and urban regeneration initiatives seen in redevelopments like Canary Wharf and Hudson Yards.

Scholars and critics including voices from Jane Jacobs-inspired debates, publications like The New York Times, and NGOs such as World Wildlife Fund have examined skyscrapers' effects on urban form, shadows, and local communities. Criticism focuses on gentrification observed in neighborhoods like SoHo, Manhattan and Shoreditch, supply-side issues debated in policy forums at institutions like Brookings Institution and Urban Land Institute, and environmental performance scrutinized by standards such as LEED and BREEAM. High-profile incidents and regulatory responses involve agencies including Occupational Safety and Health Administration and National Transportation Safety Board, while cultural reactions reference works by Frank Lloyd Wright, Aldo Rossi, and literary portrayals in novels by F. Scott Fitzgerald and Thomas Wolfe.

Category:Buildings and structures