Sawm
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| Sawm | |
|---|---|
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| Name | Sawm |
| Observed by | Muslim World League, Al-Azhar University, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Dawah |
| Significance | Muhammad, Quran, Hadith, Ramadan |
| Date | Islamic calendar |
| Frequency | Annual |
| Related | Salat, Zakat, Hajj, Shahada |
Sawm is the ritual fasting practiced in Islam that involves abstention from food, drink, smoking, and certain actions from dawn until sunset during prescribed times. Rooted in scriptural injunctions found in the Quran and elaborated in Hadith collections such as those of Bukhari and Muslim (hadith compiler), it functions as devotional observance, ethical training, and communal identity marker among adherents in diverse regions like Mecca, Medina, Cairo, and Istanbul. Major expressions of the practice occur during the month of Ramadan, while other forms appear in the traditions of communities linked to institutions such as Al-Azhar University and movements including Salafism and Sufism.
Definition and Religious Significance
In classical sources the term denotes intentional abstinence as prescribed in the Quran (e.g., verses revealed in Medina) and interpreted in juristic works by scholars like Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik, Imam Shafi'i, and Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Legal manuals from the Ottoman Empire and rulings by jurists in the Mughal Empire integrate scriptural exegesis with precedents from the life of Muhammad. The practice is linked to moral aims articulated in texts associated with Ibn Taymiyyah, Al-Ghazali, and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, emphasizing purification, patience, and solidarity with the poor as echoed in debates within the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and scholarly centers like Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah.
Types and Practices
Muslim jurists classify observances into obligatory and voluntary categories appearing in works by Ibn Rushd and Al-Mawardi. Obligatory fasting during Ramadan contrasts with expiatory fasts ordered after violations discussed in Talmudic-era comparative studies and in contemporary fatwas by Amr Khaled-associated scholars. Voluntary forms include fasts on the Day of Arafah, the Six Days of Shawwal, Mondays and Thursdays favored by followers of Hasan al-Basri and Sufi orders, and fasting on the day of Ashura as practiced in debates between adherents in Baghdad and Damascus. Regional customs recorded in Persia, Andalusian chronicles, and Mamluk administrative records show variation in timing, communal suhur and iftar traditions, and interplay with local rituals.
Rules and Exemptions
Jurisprudential conditions—intention (niyyah), avoidance of nullifying acts, and specific temporal limits—are detailed in madrasa curricula influenced by texts from Al-Azhar University and Darul Uloom Deoband. Exemptions for illness, travel, pregnancy, breastfeeding, and menstruation appear across fatwas from Ayatollah Khomeini-aligned institutions, Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah, and state bodies such as ministries in Indonesia and Egypt. Legal remedies like fidya and qada, discussed by jurists including Ibn Hazm and modern councils like the Islamic Fiqh Council, govern compensation for missed days and reconcile divergent positions between the Shafi'i and Hanafi schools.
Rituals and Observances
Daily practices revolve around pre-dawn meals and communal breaking-of-fast rituals observed at mosques such as Al-Masjid al-Haram and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, with public iftar gatherings in capitals like Riyadh, Kuala Lumpur, and Rabat. Associated rituals include increased recitation of the Quran, nocturnal prayer (Taraweeh) performed in congregation in mosques historically tied to figures like Uthman ibn Affan and codified in injunctions referenced by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Charity drives, communal almsgiving coordinated by organizations such as Islamic Relief and local zakat agencies, and educational lectures by scholars from institutions like Al-Azhar University and Jamia Millia Islamia accompany observance.
Historical Development
Early caliphal practices under the Rashidun Caliphs and administrative records from the Umayyad Caliphate established communal fast observance patterns, later systematized in medieval legal encyclopedias by authors connected to courts in Cordoba, Cairo, and Baghdad. Ottoman-era codifications integrated fasting rules into waqf-funded mosque schedules, while modern nation-states from Turkey to Pakistan negotiated secular calendars and public policy. Colonial and postcolonial encounters involving actors like Lord Curzon, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and leaders of independence movements influenced public accommodations, workplace regulations, and the role of fast observance in state identity.
Social and Cultural Impact
Fasting shapes social rhythms in cities such as Jakarta, Alexandria, Tehran, and Fez through altered business hours, culinary traditions centered on dishes from Morocco to Indonesia, and cultural productions by authors like Naguib Mahfouz and Orhan Pamuk. Media coverage by outlets such as Al Jazeera and BBC Arabic frames debates about public policy, while NGOs and charities including Red Crescent societies coordinate relief and communal meals. Interfaith encounters in multicultural settings like London, New York City, and Paris stage Ramadan-focused outreach programs, and diasporic communities negotiate workplace accommodations with institutions including United Nations agencies and multinational corporations.
Health Effects and Research Studies
Biomedical research from institutions like Mayo Clinic, Johns Hopkins University, Harvard Medical School, and universities in Malaysia and Egypt investigates metabolic, cardiovascular, and cognitive effects associated with daytime fasting. Clinical studies reported in journals linked to World Health Organization collaborations examine hydration, glycemic control in diabetic patients, and impacts on circadian rhythms, with guidance issued by medical associations in Saudi Arabia and Turkey. Randomized trials and observational cohorts compared intermittent fasting paradigms to caloric restriction studies conducted at centers such as University of Oxford and University of California, San Francisco, informing public health advisories and fatwa councils in institutions like Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah.
Category:Islamic practices