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| Protocol of Kyoto | |
|---|---|
| Name | Protocol of Kyoto |
| Date signed | 1997-12-11 |
| Location signed | Kyoto |
| Date effective | 2005-02-16 |
| Parties | Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |
| Language | English, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic, Chinese |
Protocol of Kyoto.
The Protocol of Kyoto was an international treaty negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and adopted at the Third Conference of the Parties in Kyoto in 1997. It established legally binding commitments for specific Annex I parties to reduce emissions of defined greenhouse gass and introduced market-based mechanisms intended to link emissions reductions with economic instruments. Negotiations and subsequent implementation involved actors such as the European Union, the United States, the Russian Federation, the G77, and non-governmental organizations including Greenpeace, World Wildlife Fund, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Negotiations leading to the Protocol of Kyoto were set within the framework created by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and influenced by reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and scientific assessments such as the First Assessment Report and Second Assessment Report. Major negotiation venues included the annual Conferences of the Parties like COP3 (1997) in Kyoto and preparatory sessions hosted in cities such as Bonn, Geneva, and Rio de Janeiro. Key negotiators and delegations included representatives from the European Commission, the Japanese Ministry of the Environment, the Canadian Ministry of Environment, and delegations led by figures connected to the United States Senate and the Russian Federation Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. Developing-country blocs like the G77 and China pressed for differentiation between Annex I and non-Annex I obligations, while advocacy groups such as Friends of the Earth and research institutions like the Tyndall Centre contributed policy analysis.
The Protocol of Kyoto set quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives for specific Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC. Target gases included those listed under the UNFCCC such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and various fluorinated gass identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The treaty pursued goals to return or reduce emissions relative to 1990 baselines through commitments negotiated by parties such as the European Community, Japan, Canada, and the Russian Federation. Commitments differentiated obligations for Annex I parties versus non-Annex I parties like India and Brazil, reflecting principles embedded in the Rio Declaration and the Principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities as discussed by delegations from South Africa and the People's Republic of China.
Implementation relied on three market-based mechanisms agreed at COP3 (1997): International Emissions Trading, the Clean Development Mechanism, and Joint Implementation. The Clean Development Mechanism connected projects in developing countries such as India, China, and Brazil with investment from Annex I parties, registering activities through designated operational entities and validation by the Executive Board of the Clean Development Mechanism. International Emissions Trading allowed transfer of assigned amount units among parties, interacting with national registries overseen by the UNFCCC Secretariat. Joint Implementation enabled projects between Annex I parties, involving entities from countries including the Russian Federation and Ukraine. Technical implementation engaged institutions such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change for methodologies, the World Bank for carbon funds, and regional agencies like the European Investment Bank.
Ratification and entry into force were governed by criteria established under the UNFCCC and required acceptance by a threshold of Annex I parties representing specified greenhouse gas emissions, with key ratification actions by the Russian Federation and later by the European Union member states. Some high-profile non-ratifications and political actions involved the United States Senate and the George W. Bush administration, while withdrawals or signaling from national executives such as those in Canada and policy shifts in Australia affected participation dynamics. Parties that altered their status engaged with instruments like the Depositary notifications and decisions taken at subsequent Conference of the Parties sessions.
Compliance procedures were established including reporting obligations to the UNFCCC Secretariat, national greenhouse gas inventories prepared using methodologies from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and review by expert review teams often convened in Bonn or Nairobi. The Protocol instituted the Compliance Committee to address implementation issues and a distinction between facilitative and enforcement branches, applying guidance influenced by decisions at COP7 (2001) and the Marrakesh Accords. Monitoring relied on national systems, registry architectures, and verification processes overseen by bodies like the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice.
The Protocol of Kyoto influenced emissions trajectories and catalyzed carbon markets, involving brokers and exchanges in cities like London and New York and shaping corporate strategies among multinationals such as Royal Dutch Shell and BP. Critics cited limited coverage due to non-participation by major emitters, concerns raised by analysts at institutions like the World Resources Institute, and debates in legislatures including the United States Congress about economic impacts and competitiveness. Environmental organizations including Sierra Club and Friends of the Earth argued that targets were insufficient, while economic research from the OECD and the International Monetary Fund debated cost-effectiveness and allocation. Empirical studies by universities such as University of Oxford and Massachusetts Institute of Technology analyzed outcomes across sectors and regions.
The Protocol of Kyoto set precedents used in later frameworks including the Paris Agreement and procedural elements at subsequent Conference of the Parties sessions. Concepts pioneered by the Protocol influenced market mechanisms, carbon accounting standards developed by institutions like the International Organization for Standardization, and national policies in entities such as the European Union Emissions Trading System. Academic centers including the Stockholm Environment Institute and policy networks such as Climate Action Network built on Kyoto-era architectures to advance subsequent diplomacy involving actors like António Guterres at the United Nations and negotiators at COP21 (2015).