Native Americans in the United States

Native Americans in the United States
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Group	Native Americans in the United States
Population	9.7 million (self-identified, 2020)
Regions	United States
Languages	English language, Spanish language, Lakota language, Navajo language, Cherokee language, Ojibwe language, Dakota language, Comanche language, Choctaw language, Mohawk language
Religions	Native American Church, Peyote, Catholic Church, Protestantism, Sun Dance
Related	First Nations, Inuit, Métis

Native Americans in the United States Native Americans in the United States encompass the indigenous peoples who inhabited the North America landmass prior to European colonization of the Americas, including distinct nations, tribes, bands, and communities such as the Navajo Nation, Cherokee Nation, and Sioux. Their histories intersect with events like the Columbian Exchange, the American Revolutionary War, and the Trail of Tears, shaping contemporary legal and political relationships with the United States and institutions such as the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Indian Health Service.

History

Precontact societies across regions from the Pacific Northwest to the Southeast United States created complex polities like the Mississippian culture and cities such as Chaco Canyon and Cahokia, while trade networks linked to Mesoamerica and the Arctic corridors. Following contact, episodes including the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, and the encounters involving figures like Hernán Cortés, Samuel de Champlain, and John Smith precipitated demographic collapse from introduced diseases and warfare. Colonial and early US policy—illustrated by the Royal Proclamation of 1763, the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and court cases such as Worcester v. Georgia—led to forced relocations epitomized by the Trail of Tears and conflicts like the Battle of Little Bighorn and the Sand Creek Massacre. Late 19th- and early 20th-century developments including the Dawes Act and the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 aimed to assimilate indigenous peoples, while resistance and revitalization efforts emerged through movements connected to the American Indian Movement and legal victories such as United States v. Kagama and rulings interpreting Indian law principles. The mid-20th century saw policy shifts under Indian termination policy and later Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, with contemporary legal frameworks influenced by decisions in cases like McGirt v. Oklahoma.

Cultures and Languages

Diverse cultural traditions persist among groups like the Haida, Tlingit, Pueblo peoples, Iroquois Confederacy, Cherokee, Choctaw, Apache, Comanche, Lakota, and Navajo Nation; ceremonial practices include the Potlatch, the Sun Dance, and the rites of the Native American Church that use peyote. Artistic forms range from basketry in the California Indians to pottery by the Ancestral Puebloans, beadwork of the Plains Indians, and carving traditions of the Northwest Coast peoples. Language families represented include Algonquian languages, Siouan languages, Uto-Aztecan languages, Iroquoian languages, Athabaskan languages, and Eskimo–Aleut languages, with revival initiatives for Cherokee language, Navajo language, Ojibwe language, and Hopi language led by programs at institutions such as Haskell Indian Nations University and collaborations with Smithsonian Institution projects. Oral histories, exemplified in works collected by scholars like Frances Densmore and Vine Deloria Jr., inform ethnography, archaeology, and cultural preservation at sites managed by agencies such as the National Park Service.

Demographics and Population Distribution

Population centers include reservations and lands of the Navajo Nation, Tohono O'odham Nation, Cherokee Nation, Wind River Indian Reservation, and urban concentrations in Los Angeles, Phoenix, Albuquerque, New York City, and Chicago. Census data from the United States Census Bureau indicate growth in self-identified indigenous populations and multiracial identities, influenced by policies like the Indian Reorganization Act and the effects of migration tied to employment in industries regulated by entities such as Indian Gaming Regulatory Act frameworks. Tribal enrollment rules vary among sovereign nations like the Seminole Tribe of Florida, Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria, and Osage Nation, affecting access to services provided by the Indian Health Service and educational opportunities at colleges including University of Arizona and University of New Mexico.

Legal Status and Federal Indian Policy

Tribal sovereignty is framed by treaties such as the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), Supreme Court decisions including Johnson v. M'Intosh and Kagama v. United States, and statutes like the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975. Federal agencies including the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Health Service, and National Indian Gaming Commission implement policy, while tribal governments interact with federal entities including the Department of the Interior and the Department of Justice. Contemporary litigation over jurisdiction appears in cases like McGirt v. Oklahoma and regulatory debate surrounding projects such as the Dakota Access Pipeline near Standing Rock Indian Reservation, invoking environmental statutes like the National Environmental Policy Act and treaty rights affirmed in disputes like United States v. Winans.

Economy, Education, and Health

Economic development spans tribal enterprises such as casinos operated under the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, natural resource ventures on lands like those of the Navajo Nation and Pueblo peoples, and cultural tourism at sites like Mesa Verde National Park and Bandelier National Monument. Educational initiatives occur in Bureau of Indian Education schools, tribal colleges like Sinte Gleska University and Diné College, and programs at mainstream universities including Brown University and Harvard University that host Native studies centers. Health challenges addressed by the Indian Health Service include disparities in chronic disease, mental health, and access highlighted during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic; interventions involve partnerships with organizations such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and tribal health programs from nations like the Blackfeet Nation and Choctaw Nation.

Contemporary Issues and Activism

Modern activism draws on history of resistance from events such as the Occupation of Alcatraz (1969–1971) and the Wounded Knee incident (1973), to campaigns opposing infrastructure projects like the Dakota Access Pipeline and advocating for recognition of missing and murdered indigenous women via movements linked to Savanna's Act and the Not Invisible Act. Cultural sovereignty initiatives include language revitalization through programs like Master-Apprentice Language Learning and repatriation efforts under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act involving museums such as the Smithsonian Institution and the American Museum of Natural History. Political representation has expanded with leaders elected to legislative bodies including United States Congress members from Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Minnesota, appointments to executive roles, and tribal-state compacts resolving issues with entities like the National Congress of American Indians and the Native American Rights Fund. Contemporary legal and environmental advocacy continues in forums such as UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples discussions and litigation in federal courts addressing land, water, and cultural resource protections.

Category:Indigenous peoples of the Americas