Iraq (post-1990)
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| Iraq (post-1990) | |
|---|---|
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| Name | Iraq (post-1990) |
| Capital | Baghdad |
| Largest city | Baghdad |
| Official languages | Arabic; Kurdish |
| Population estimate | 40 million (approx.) |
| Area km2 | 438,317 |
| Government | Transitional and federal arrangements |
| Currency | Iraqi dinar |
- Background: End of Saddam Hussein's Consolidation (1990–2003)
- Gulf War and International Sanctions (1990s)
- 2003 Invasion and Occupation
- Insurgency, Sectarian Conflict, and Rise of Extremist Groups (2003–2011)
- Post-2008 Political Developments and State Reconstruction
- ISIS, Counteroffensives, and Security Challenges (2013–2017)
- Political Transition, Reconciliation, and Reform Efforts (2018–present)
- Economy, Society, and Humanitarian Issues in the Post-1990 Era
Iraq (post-1990)
Iraq after 1990 underwent transformative wars, occupations, insurgencies, and reconstruction efforts that reshaped its borders, institutions, and society. External interventions by United States, United Kingdom, France, Soviet Union successors like the Russian Federation, regional actors such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey, and multilateral organizations including the United Nations and North Atlantic Treaty Organization influenced political trajectories. Domestic actors—ranging from Ba'athist elites linked to Saddam Hussein to Kurdish parties like the Kurdistan Democratic Party and Patriotic Union of Kurdistan—competed with sectarian movements and civil society groups during reconstitution.
Background: End of Saddam Hussein's Consolidation (1990–2003)
The period after 1990 saw the Ba'athist regime of Saddam Hussein confront external and internal crises that eroded its control, including clashes with the Kurdish people in Iraqi Kurdistan and uprisings by Shia Arabs in Najaf and Karbala. Regional tensions involved Iran–Iraq War legacies and disputes with Kuwait culminating in the Invasion of Kuwait (1990), which provoked the Gulf War and subsequent UN Security Council sanctions. Internal repression by the Iraqi Intelligence Service and security organs like the Republican Guard persisted even as economic decline and international isolation intensified.
Gulf War and International Sanctions (1990s)
The Gulf War campaign led by a United States-led coalition including the United Kingdom, France, and Saudi Arabia expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait but left Saddam in power under heavy United Nations Security Council resolutions such as UNSCR 661. Sanctions linked to Oil-for-Food Programme dynamics affected urban centers like Baghdad and the Kurdish north, where United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq and No-fly zones enforced protections. Humanitarian crises intersected with uprisings suppressed by the Iraqi Republican Guard and chemical weapons controversies involving allegations tied to Halabja and international investigations by entities connected to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons.
2003 Invasion and Occupation
The 2003 military campaign by United States and United Kingdom forces, supported by coalition partners such as Australia and Poland, toppled Saddam Hussein and dismantled Ba'athist institutions through directives issued by the Coalition Provisional Authority. The invasion, justified under premises including UNSCR 1441 and concerns about Weapons of Mass Destruction that featured in speeches by leaders like George W. Bush and Tony Blair, precipitated power vacuums. Occupation policies, de-Ba'athification orders, and dissolution of units like the Iraqi Army contributed to security gaps exploited by insurgent networks and prompted legal cases including actions at the International Criminal Court-adjacent forums.
Insurgency, Sectarian Conflict, and Rise of Extremist Groups (2003–2011)
Post-invasion instability produced insurgencies drawing figures linked to former regime elements, foreign jihadi volunteers affiliated with movements such as Al-Qaeda in Iraq, and militias like Mahdi Army and Badr Organization. Sectarian violence between Shia and Sunni Arabs escalated in urban arenas including Baghdad and Mosul and at holy sites in Najaf; high-profile incidents like the bombing of the Al-Askari Mosque intensified cycles of reprisal. International efforts by coalitions and reconstruction programs competed with local governance initiatives by provincial councils and parties such as Islamic Dawa Party and State of Law Coalition while multinational forces undertook surge operations exemplified by the 2007 troop surge.
Post-2008 Political Developments and State Reconstruction
From 2008 onward, political bargaining led to elections contested by blocs including the Iraqi National Alliance, Iraqi List, and factions led by figures like Nouri al-Maliki and Ibrahim al-Jaafari, influencing premierships and cabinet formation. Institutional reconstruction involved drafting policies on federalism impacting Kurdistan Region relations, revenue-sharing disputes over Iraqi oil fields, and legal reforms involving the Iraqi High Tribunal and vetting processes. International partners such as the European Union and United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq supported capacity-building while regional diplomacy engaged Iran–Iraq relations and Turkey–Iraq relations over security and energy.
ISIS, Counteroffensives, and Security Challenges (2013–2017)
The emergence of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL/ISIS) capitalized on territorial control vacuums, capturing cities including Mosul and declaring a caliphate, prompting multinational responses including air campaigns by the United States Central Command and ground operations involving the Peshmerga, Popular Mobilization Forces, and partnered Iraqi Security Forces. Major battles such as the Battle of Mosul (2016–17) and the Siege of Fallujah led to urban destruction and population displacement recorded by agencies like the International Committee of the Red Cross and UNHCR. The defeat of ISIS territorially by 2017 involved coordination among state actors and militias and raised issues of detainee management, reconstruction, and transitional justice.
Political Transition, Reconciliation, and Reform Efforts (2018–present)
Elections from 2018 onward produced shifting coalitions with leaders such as Adil Abdul-Mahdi, Barham Salih, and Mohammed Shia' al-Sudani navigating pressures from protest movements like the 2019–2021 Iraqi protests, Kurdish demands led by Masoud Barzani-aligned parties, and influence from Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps proxies. Reform agendas addressed anti-corruption efforts challenged by entrenched patronage networks, judicial cases in institutions like the Supreme Judicial Council and proposed constitutional amendments concerning federalism and oil governance. Diplomatic engagement involved outreach to United States–Iraq relations, European Union–Iraq relations, and rapprochement with neighbors via forums such as the Arab League and Organization of Islamic Cooperation.
Economy, Society, and Humanitarian Issues in the Post-1990 Era
Economic contours centered on hydrocarbon revenues from fields like Basra and pipelines through projects involving foreign firms, while challenges included infrastructure damage from conflict, unemployment, and budgetary dependence on oil exports regulated by the Iraqi Ministry of Oil. Social consequences encompassed mass displacement of civilians to camps documented by UNHCR, public health strains treated in hospitals in Baghdad and Erbil, and cultural preservation efforts for sites such as Babylon led by international teams. Humanitarian responses by NGOs and UN agencies confronted mine contamination, reconstruction needs, and refugee returns amid debates over citizenship rights for communities including Yazidis and internally displaced persons. Category:History of Iraq