History of Iraq

History of Iraq
Miguel Hermoso Cuesta · CC BY-SA 4.0 · source
Name	Iraq
Native name	العراق
Capital	Baghdad
Region	Mesopotamia
Established	c. 3500 BCE
Area km2	437072
Population	40 million (approx.)

History of Iraq Iraq encompasses the riverine cradle of urban civilization in Mesopotamia, a region whose cities, states, and empires shaped antiquity and influenced Persia, Anatolia, Levant, and Egypt. Its successive epochs—from Sumerian city-states through empires such as the Akkadian Empire, Assyrian Empire, and Neo-Babylonian Empire to Islamic caliphates, Ottoman administration, and 20th‑century nationhood—connect figures, texts, and institutions that have had global impact. The modern Republic emerged from post-World War I rearrangements, dynastic experiment, military coups, authoritarian rule under Saddam Hussein, and the 2003 Iraq War, followed by reconstruction, insurgency, and contested political settlement.

Prehistoric and Ancient Mesopotamia

The alluvial plains between the Tigris and Euphrates fostered Neolithic settlements such as Jarmo, Eridu, Aššur, and Çayönü and later urban centers including Uruk, Ur, and Lagash. In the 4th millennium BCE the Sumerians developed cuneiform on clay tablets, producing literate institutions like the Temple of Enki, administrative archives at Nippur, and works such as the Epic of Gilgamesh. City-states under rulers like Enmebaragesi and Lugalzagesi competed prior to the rise of the Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad and the imperial synthesis recorded in royal inscriptions. Successive dynasties—the Third Dynasty of Ur, states of Isin and Larsa—advanced legal codes, irrigation technology, and monumental architecture exemplified by ziggurats.

Classical Antiquity and Late Antiquity

The collapse of native dynasties preceded domination by Assyria, with capitals at Nineveh and Kalhu (Nimrud) under rulers such as Ashurbanipal and Sargon II, culminating in the Neo-Assyrian imperial system. The Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt Babylon and features in accounts tied to Cyrus the Great of Persia who conquered Mesopotamia, integrating it into the Achaemenid Empire. Alexander the Great captured Gaugamela and established Hellenistic dynasties; later, the region formed provinces of the Seleucid Empire and was contested by Parthia and Arsacid polities. During Late Antiquity provinces such as Asōristān experienced Christian communities like the Church of the East and were later incorporated into the Sasanian Empire before the 7th‑century campaigns of the Rashidun Caliphate.

Islamic Caliphates and Medieval Period

The Battle of al-Qadisiyyah and the conquest of Ctesiphon brought Mesopotamia into the Arab Islamic sphere, birthing administrative and cultural centers such as Kufa and Basra. The Abbasid Caliphate established its capital at Baghdad in 762 under Al-Mansur; Baghdad became a nexus for scholars from Al-Kindi to Al-Farabi, housed institutions like the House of Wisdom, and produced encyclopedic works, astronomical tables, and medical treatises by figures such as Al-Razi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Regional dynasties including the Samanids, Buyids, and Seljuqs contested Abbasid authority while trade linked Iraq to the Silk Road, Venice, and ports of the Indian Ocean. The Mongol siege of Baghdad (1258) by Hulagu Khan destroyed much of Abbasid political power, and subsequent Ilkhanid and Timurid episodes reshaped urban and social life prior to Ottoman incorporation.

Ottoman Rule and Early Modern Era

Iraq's provinces—Mosul Eyalet, Baghdad Eyalet, and Basra Eyalet—were incorporated into the Ottoman Empire after campaigns by Suleiman the Magnificent and later administrators like Wali of Baghdad governors. Ottoman rule mediated local power through provincial notables, tribal confederations such as the Anaza and families including the Al-Muntafiq, while cities hosted religious institutions such as the Al-Kadhimiya Mosque and markets frequented by merchants tied to Aleppo and Isfahan. The 19th century reforms of the Tanzimat and figures like Midhat Pasha attempted centralization, railway projects linked to the Suez Canal era, and European interest intensified with explorers and consuls from Britain, France, and Russia. World War I campaigns by the British Indian Army, battles like Kirkuk and sieges at Kut al-Amara, and the fall of Ottoman provincial leaders paved the way for a new mandate.

British Mandate and Formation of the Kingdom of Iraq

After World War I the Treaty of Sèvres and the League of Nations assigned a British Mandate for Mesopotamia, administered by figures such as Gertrude Bell and Sir Percy Cox. The 1920 Iraqi Revolt challenged mandate policies and led to the installation of the Hashemite monarchy under King Faisal I in 1921 following the Treaty of Ankara and negotiations with Lord Curzon. Iraq joined the League of Nations as an independent kingdom (1932) but faced tensions involving Kirkuk oil concessions to the Iraq Petroleum Company, ethnic politics among Kurds, tribal leaders, and pan-Arab currents influenced by Husayn ibn Ali and regional nationalists. Constitutional experiments, the Golden Square coup, and World War II alignments affected state institutions and military elites.

Republic, Ba'athist Era, and Saddam Hussein

A 1958 coup by army officers including Abdul Karim Qasim overthrew the monarchy; subsequent political turbulence involved the Republic of Iraq, coups in 1963 and 1968, and the rise of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party with leaders such as Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and Saddam Hussein. Ba'athist policies reshaped oil nationalization of the Iraq National Oil Company, land reform, and secularization while engaging in conflicts such as the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) against Ruhollah Khomeini's Iran, punctuated by the Battle of Basra, chemical attacks like the Halabja chemical attack, and international dynamics involving the United States, Soviet Union, and France. The 1990 invasion of Kuwait provoked the Gulf War and Operation Desert Storm led by a coalition under Norman Schwarzkopf, followed by sanctions administered by the United Nations and uprisings including the 1991 Shi'a and Kurdish revolts suppressed by Saddam's forces.

Post-2003 Invasion and Contemporary Iraq

The 2003 invasion by a coalition led by the United States and United Kingdom toppled Saddam Hussein, triggering the Iraq War, the trial and execution of Saddam, and the establishment of the Coalition Provisional Authority under Paul Bremer. Post-invasion dynamics included insurgency by groups such as Al-Qaeda in Iraq, the rise and territorial control of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) capturing Mosul and declaring a caliphate, and counteroffensives by the Iraqi Security Forces, Peshmerga, and International Coalition forces culminating in operations like the Battle of Mosul (2016–17). Political reconstruction involved constitutions ratified in 2005, elections with parties such as the Dawa Party and Iraqi National Accord, tensions with neighboring Iran, Kurdish autonomy under the Kurdistan Regional Government, disputes over Kirkuk and oil revenues, humanitarian crises, and efforts by organizations like the United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq and World Bank for stabilization. Contemporary challenges include reconstruction of heritage sites like Nineveh, transitional justice initiatives, and debates over federalism, foreign influence, and economic diversification linked to the Basra oilfields and international investment.

Category:History of Asia Category:Iraq