Information
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| Information | |
|---|---|
| Title | Information |
| Subject | Claude Shannon, Norbert Wiener, Alan Turing |
| Discipline | Information theory, Cybernetics, Computer science |
Information Information is a multipurpose concept central to Claude Shannon, Norbert Wiener, Alan Turing and to institutions such as the Bell Labs, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Royal Society. It underpins technologies developed at Bell Labs, debated at World Economic Forum, and implemented by corporations like IBM, Microsoft, and Google. The term shapes research agendas at universities including Stanford University, University of Cambridge, and Harvard University, and informs policy at bodies such as the European Commission, United Nations, and World Health Organization.
Definition and Concepts
Scholars at Princeton University, University of Oxford, Caltech, University of California, Berkeley, and ETH Zurich distinguish semantic accounts promoted by Willard Van Orman Quine, Donald Davidson, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Noam Chomsky from syntactic treatments used by Claude Shannon, Norbert Wiener, and Alan Turing. Other framings appear in work by Herbert A. Simon, Karl Popper, John Searle, Hilary Putnam, and Gilbert Ryle. Definitions intersect applications in Niels Bohr's interpretation of physics, Maxwell's demon thought experiments discussed by James Clerk Maxwell and Leo Szilard, and legal definitions shaped by courts such as the European Court of Justice and the Supreme Court of the United States.
Measurement and Quantification
Quantification traces to Claude Shannon's entropy formula and to contributions from R.A. Fisher, Andrey Kolmogorov, Norbert Wiener, and Harry Nyquist. Metrics used by researchers at Bell Labs, IBM Research, AT&T, Intel Corporation, and NIST include Shannon entropy, Kolmogorov complexity associated with Andrey Kolmogorov and Gregory Chaitin, mutual information applied by Hugo K. Simon-era econometricians, and information gain used in algorithms from Quinlan's ID3 and J. Ross Quinlan. Measurement practices appear in standards from International Organization for Standardization, IEEE, and ITU.
Information Theory
Information theory, formalized by Claude Shannon at Bell Labs, evolved alongside cybernetics by Norbert Wiener and computation theory by Alan Turing and Alonzo Church. Developments at Bell Labs, MIT, Princeton University, University of Cambridge, and University of Illinois gave rise to channel coding theorems, source coding, error-correcting codes by Claude Shannon, Richard Hamming, Thomas Cover, J. Max Williams, and David Slepian. Later work by Robert Gallager, Andrew Viterbi, Elwyn Berlekamp, and David MacKay influenced standards adopted by ITU and IEEE for telecommunications used by AT&T, Nokia, and Ericsson.
Biological and Cognitive Information
Biological information concepts developed through collaboration among scholars at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Salk Institute, Max Planck Society, and Harvard Medical School, influenced by the Human Genome Project, the work of James Watson, Francis Crick, and computational models from John von Neumann and Alan Turing. Cognitive theories at MIT, Stanford University, University College London, and Princeton University draw on researchers such as Noam Chomsky, George A. Miller, Herbert A. Simon, Daniel Kahneman, and Elizabeth Loftus. Studies of neural coding by teams at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Allen Institute for Brain Science, Neuroscience Research Australia, and Max Planck Institute for Brain Research use information measures to analyze data from projects like Human Connectome Project and experiments by Eric Kandel and Santiago Ramón y Cajal-inspired laboratories.
Information Technology and Communication
Applied information work is embodied in products and standards from IBM, Microsoft, Google, Apple Inc., Cisco Systems, and Intel Corporation and is regulated through frameworks from European Commission, Federal Communications Commission, and International Telecommunication Union. Protocols such as TCP/IP developed by researchers at DARPA and MIT, cryptographic systems evolving from work by Whitfield Diffie, Martin Hellman, Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, Leonard Adleman, and standards like RSA (cryptosystem) govern secure transmission in networks operated by AT&T, Verizon Communications, and China Telecom.
Social, Economic, and Legal Aspects
Information markets and institutions studied at London School of Economics, Harvard Business School, Wharton School, and Columbia Business School examine platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Amazon (company), and Alibaba Group. Intellectual property regimes shaped by statutes like the Berne Convention, decisions of the European Court of Justice, and legislation in the United States Congress affect firms including Walt Disney Company, Tencent, and Sony Corporation. Regulatory responses from Federal Trade Commission, European Commission', and international negotiations at the World Trade Organization address issues of data protection influenced by laws such as the General Data Protection Regulation.
Philosophical and Epistemological Perspectives
Philosophical inquiry into information has roots in seminars at University of Cambridge, Oxford University, Princeton University, and University of Chicago and debates among thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, Gottfried Leibniz, Bertrand Russell, W.V.O. Quine, and Donald Davidson. Contemporary authors including Floridi, Hilary Putnam, John R. Searle, Daniel Dennett, and Timothy Williamson connect epistemology, semantics, and metaphysics to models used at Stanford University, MIT, and University of Oxford.