Executive Order 9981

Executive Order 9981
US-Regierung · Public domain · source
Name	Executive Order 9981
Issued by	Harry S. Truman
Date issued	July 26, 1948
Purpose	Desegregation of the United States Armed Forces

Contents

Executive Order 9981 was issued on July 26, 1948, by Harry S. Truman to establish equality of treatment and opportunity in the United States Armed Forces. The order directed the formation of a committee to oversee implementation and marked a turning point in civil rights policy amid the Cold War, the aftermath of World War II, and domestic political pressures from civil rights groups and veterans' organizations. It intersected with broader struggles involving prominent figures and institutions such as A. Philip Randolph, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the Democratic Party, the Republican Party, and federal agencies.

Background and Context

In the post-World War II era, debates over racial segregation in the United States military reflected tensions raised by veterans returning from the European Theater, the Pacific War, and battles like the Battle of Okinawa. Pressure from labor leaders such as A. Philip Randolph and civil rights organizations including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Congress of Racial Equality intensified alongside activism by figures like Thurgood Marshall, Walter White, and Roy Wilkins. International concerns during the Cold War—involving adversaries like the Soviet Union and events such as the Berlin Blockade—amplified criticisms from foreign leaders and allies including Winston Churchill and delegations to the United Nations about American racial policies. Political dynamics in the 1948 United States presidential election and influence from cabinet members such as Dean Acheson and George Marshall shaped Truman’s decision, paralleled by Congressional actions involving legislators like Senator Strom Thurmond, Representative Adam Clayton Powell Jr., and Senator Harry F. Byrd.

The order declared that there shall be "equality of treatment and opportunity" in the United States Armed Forces and created a Presidential Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, sometimes called the Fahy Committee after chair Paul Fay but involving figures from the Department of Defense, the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Army, and the Department of the Air Force. It directed military departments to review policies applied at bases such as Fort Bragg, Naval Station Norfolk, and Andrews Air Force Base, and to coordinate with legal authorities including the Solicitor General of the United States and the Attorney General of the United States. The order referenced prior wartime integration efforts exemplified by units like the Tuskegee Airmen, the Montford Point Marines, and the 422nd Port Battalion, and it implicitly challenged practices upheld in places like Jim Crow South and legal precedents from cases considered by the Supreme Court of the United States.

Implementation depended on military leadership including Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, Hap Arnold, Chester W. Nimitz, Leonard T. Gerow, and service secretaries such as James V. Forrestal and John L. Sullivan (secretary). The committee conducted investigations, issued recommendations, and worked with officers from corps and fleets in theaters like the Pacific Theater of World War II and the European Theater of World War II. Notable episodes in implementation involved desegregation at installations like Fort Benning, the transition of units such as the 99th Pursuit Squadron (Tuskegee Airmen), and the reassignment policies affecting veterans from the 92nd Infantry Division and the 93rd Infantry Division. The process intersected with federal programs administered by agencies including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Civil Rights Division of the Department of Justice, and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)’s precursors, as well as judicial reviews involving the United States Court of Appeals and district courts.

The order accelerated integration across services, influencing leaders and institutions including Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, Medgar Evers, Bayard Rustin, and organizations like the National Urban League. It set precedents followed in subsequent civil rights milestones such as decisions by the Supreme Court of the United States in cases of civil rights jurisprudence and legislative acts like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The order shaped military culture during conflicts including the Korean War and the Vietnam War, affecting units involved in battles like the Pusan Perimeter and the Tet Offensive. It influenced personnel policies involving decorations such as the Medal of Honor and affected the careers of officers like Benjamin O. Davis Jr. and enlisted leaders who later participated in civic life and institutions such as the National Archives and Smithsonian Institution.

Reactions ranged from support by civil rights leaders and parts of the Democratic Party to opposition from segregationist politicians like Strom Thurmond and organizations such as the States' Rights Democratic Party (Dixiecrats). Legal challenges and debates touched on constitutional principles argued before the Supreme Court of the United States and congressional oversight by committees including the Senate Armed Services Committee and the House Armed Services Committee. The order intersected with legislation such as the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, wartime directives like War Department Circulars, and international norms debated within the United Nations General Assembly. Its political effects contributed to shifting alignments in southern politics, the careers of executives like Lyndon B. Johnson and John F. Kennedy, and policy discussions in later administrations including those of Richard Nixon and Jimmy Carter.

Category:1948 in law Category:United States civil rights law