Medal of Honor
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| Medal of Honor | |
|---|---|
| Name | Medal of Honor |
| Presenter | United States Department of Defense |
| Type | Military decoration |
| Awarded for | Acts of valor above and beyond the call of duty |
| Status | Active |
Medal of Honor is the highest personal military decoration presented in the United States to members of the United States Armed Forces who distinguish themselves by conspicuous gallantry at the risk of life beyond the call of duty. Established during the American Civil War era, the medal has been awarded to service members from conflicts including the Indian Wars, Spanish–American War, Boxer Rebellion, Philippine–American War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Cold War, the Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), and the Iraq War. Recipients include members of the United States Army, United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, United States Air Force, and United States Coast Guard.
History
The decoration originated with legislation passed in 1861 and 1862 during the American Civil War under the administrations of Abraham Lincoln and members of the United States Congress (37th); early versions recognized sailors and soldiers separately, with separate statutes for the Union Navy and the Union Army. After the Civil War, actions during the Indian Wars and the Modoc War led to additional awards; later revisions responded to controversies from the 1884–1891 Medal of Honor review and corrective processes tied to the Chestnut Affair. The turn of the 20th century saw awards for actions in the Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War; Navy recipients from interventions such as the Banana Wars and the Occupation of Veracruz (1914) were also recognized. World conflicts accelerated awards during World War I and World War II; notable campaigns include the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Normandy landings, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Cold War-era recognitions arose from actions in Korea and Vietnam, with later statutory changes enacted by members of Congress including lawmakers from United States Senate committees and the United States House of Representatives to authorize retrospective awards and rescind certain earlier decorations. High-profile reviews occurred after President Jimmy Carter and later legislative acts facilitated upgrades, as during the reviews prompted by anti-discrimination findings and recommendations from the U.S. Army Board for Correction of Military Records and the Board for Correction of Naval Records.
Eligibility and Criteria
Eligibility criteria are established in statutes codified in Title 10 of the United States Code and implemented by the Department of Defense regulations; eligibility includes service members of the United States Armed Forces and in rare cases civilians serving under military command during conflict. The award requires a demonstrated act of conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of life, performed in action against an enemy of the United States or while engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing foreign force. Criteria reference precedent from cases involving recipients such as Alvin York, Audie Murphy, Desmond Doss, Lewis Millett, Roy Benavidez, and John Basilone; standards are informed by historical reviews tied to actions in engagements like the Battle of Belleau Wood, Battle of Guadalcanal, Battle of Chosin Reservoir, and the Tet Offensive. Waivers and posthumous awards have been authorized under review boards and congressional acts, including legislation sponsored by members of the United States Congress and recommendations from service secretaries such as the Secretary of the Navy and the Secretary of the Army.
Design and Variants
The Medal has three service-specific versions authorized for the United States Army, United States Navy, and United States Air Force; the United States Marine Corps and United States Coast Guard typically receive the Navy version. Each design incorporates iconography such as eagles, anchor motifs, Minerva or allegorical figures, and ribbon colors with light blue and white stars. The Army pattern issued after redesigns in the early 20th century contrasts with the Navy’s star-shaped device first instituted during the Civil War era and the Air Force variant adopted after the establishment of the United States Air Force in 1947. Special variants and commemorative devices have appeared for unit citations and for awards to members involved in joint operations under commands such as United States Central Command and United States European Command.
Awarding Process and Ceremonies
Nominations typically originate from unit commanders and proceed through chains of command, including service secretaries and the Office of the Secretary of Defense, before final approval by the President of the United States acting as Commander-in-Chief; when approved, the President signs the award citation and the medal is presented in ceremony. Formal investiture ceremonies occur at venues such as the White House, military academies like the United States Military Academy and the United States Naval Academy, and at major installations including Fort Bragg and Marine Corps Base Quantico. Ceremonies often include reading the official citation, presentations by senior leaders, and attendance by members of the recipient’s unit and family, with historical presentations made by presidents from Abraham Lincoln to Joe Biden. Posthumous presentations have been made to next of kin at memorial services and at sites like the Arlington National Cemetery.
Notable Recipients and Citations
Prominent recipients span eras and services: Civil War honorees such as Joshua Chamberlain and David Farragut; Spanish–American War figures like Theodore Roosevelt; World War I heroes including Samuel Woodfill and Smedley Butler; World War II figures including Audie Murphy, Doris Miller, Ralph Johnson (soldier), and Vernon Baker; Korean War honorees such as Douglas MacArthur (recognition via separate honors) and Hiroshi Miyamura; Vietnam War recipients such as Dakota Meyer (note: Meyer served in Afghanistan; see contemporaneous actions), Dwight H. Johnson, and Larry Butler; later-era recipients include Gary I. Gordon, Ralph E. Pomeroy, William Kyle Carpenter, and David Bellavia. Many citations describe valor during named battles and campaigns such as Gettysburg, Santiago de Cuba, Belleau Wood, Normandy, Iwo Jima, Hamburg Raid, Chosin Reservoir, Khe Sanh, Hamburger Hill, Operation Iraqi Freedom, and Operation Enduring Freedom. Historic posthumous awards have been granted following reviews for veterans of World War II and Korean War upon findings of discrimination or omissions.
Legal Status and Benefits
Federal law codified in Title 10 and Title 38 of the United States Code provides protections and benefits for recipients, including precedence in wearing decorations, burial honors at Arlington National Cemetery, and entitlement to certain life insurance and pension considerations administered by agencies such as the Department of Veterans Affairs. Statutory provisions protect the name and likeness associated with the decoration and criminalize unauthorized manufacture or sale under laws enforced by the United States Secret Service and the Department of Justice. Benefits also include eligibility for invitations to national commemorations, access to military medical facilities under specified conditions, and recognition in honors programs administered by the Congressional Medal of Honor Society and by presidential proclamations.