Coups d'état

Coups d'état
François Bouchot · Public domain · source
Name	Coups d'état
Type	Political seizure of power
Participants	Military officers, politicians, intelligence services, paramilitaries
Outcome	Removal of incumbents, regime change, provisional administrations

Coups d'état A coup d'état is a sudden, extra-constitutional seizure of state power by a small group, typically involving military officers, politicians, intelligence operatives, or paramilitary forces. Scholars and practitioners debate boundaries between coups, revolutions, insurrections, and revolts; incidents vary from palace intrigues to nationwide plots that displace executives, legislatures, and constitutions. Analyses draw on case studies ranging from 19th‑century Europe to 21st‑century Africa, Asia, and the Americas to classify motives, methods, and outcomes.

Definition and terminology

Political science and international law distinguish terms such as coup d'état (often abbreviated as coup), putsch, palace coup, self‑coup, and revolution; usage varies in studies referencing incidents like the 18 Brumaire or the July Revolution. Analysts reference compilations such as the Coups d'état (dataset) and indices used by the World Bank, Freedom House, and Polity Project to operationalize definitions for quantitative research. Comparative scholars cite landmark cases—Napoleon Bonaparte’s 18 Brumaire, the Easter Rising (as contrast), and the Chile 1973 overthrow—to illustrate distinctions among sudden leadership seizures, mass uprisings like the Russian Revolution, and negotiated transitions exemplified by the Glorious Revolution.

Historical examples by region and era

Europe: 19th‑century incidents such as Napoleon III’s 1851 seizure and the Coup of 18 Fructidor informed patterns later seen in interwar episodes involving figures like Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. Latin America: Frequent 20th‑century cases include the 1930 episode involving Getúlio Vargas in Brazil, the 1954 intervention against Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán in Guatemala, and the 1973 overthrow of Salvador Allende in Chile. Africa: Postcolonial periods saw coups in states such as Ghana (Kwame Nkrumah’s 1966 removal), Nigeria (1966 coups), Uganda (Idi Amin), and late‑20th/21st‑century episodes involving Hissène Habré and Omar al‑Bashir. Asia: Notable cases include the 1947 Pakistan model debates, the 1962 Burma coup by Ne Win, the 1975 events in Bangladesh involving Ziaur Rahman’s rise, and the 2014 and 2021 military actions in Thailand and Myanmar respectively. Middle East: Coups shaped states like Iran (1953 intervention against Mohammad Mossadegh), Iraq (1958 Free Officers Movement), and the Egypt military upheavals of 1952 and 2013 involving figures such as Gamal Abdel Nasser and Abdel Fattah el‑Sisi. Oceania and elsewhere: Instances in Fiji and attempted plots in Papua New Guinea and Pacific islands illustrate diffusion. Contemporary compendia link events to Cold War dynamics, decolonization, and transnational actors like the Central Intelligence Agency and KGB.

Causes and motivations

Drivers include elite rivalry among political actors like presidents, prime ministers, party leaders, and military commanders; institutional decay in bodies such as parliaments and supreme courts; economic crises linked to commodities shocks affecting exporters like Venezuela and Nigeria; ideological contests between actors influenced by Communist Party networks or Islamist movements; and foreign influence by states or organizations such as the United States, Soviet Union, People's Republic of China, and regional bodies like the African Union. Personal ambition by leaders like Augusto Pinochet or Fulgencio Batista, fears of reform among conservative elites, and breakdowns in civil‑military relations evident in cases like Pakistan and Turkey also recur.

Methods and execution

Execution commonly employs coordinated seizures of critical nodes: presidential palaces, national broadcasting services, airports, parliaments, and military bases. Plotters use chains of command within formations such as army units, air force squadrons, and naval detachments, often leveraging intelligence from agencies like the MI6 or Mossad and communications control to monopolize information flows. Techniques include palace arrests (e.g., Soviet‑style apparatchik purges), staged resignations or decrees invoking emergency powers as in Perón‑era Argentina, and staged popular mobilizations orchestrated by parties like National Liberation Front affiliates. Successful coups commonly neutralize rival commanders, secure legislative compliance or dissolution, and seek international recognition from actors such as the United Nations and regional organizations.

Domestic and international consequences

Domestically, outcomes range from short‑lived provisional juntas to long authoritarian regimes headed by individuals like Francisco Franco or Suharto, transitional democratization as seen after some military withdrawals in Spain and Portugal, and cycles of countercoups producing protracted instability in places like Somalia and Lebanon. Internationally, coups alter alliances, provoke sanctions by entities like the European Union and United States Department of State, invite intervention or covert action from intelligence services, and affect treaties such as Bretton Woods‑era agreements for debtor states. Economic impacts include capital flight affecting markets like São Paulo and London, while human rights patterns often shift under juntas monitored by organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.

Legal and constitutional responses

Responses include constitutional entrenchments to limit executive seizure, such as impeachment mechanisms in systems inspired by the United States Constitution or judicial review modeled after the Marbury v. Madison precedent. Domestic legislation may criminalize participation in overthrow plots; international law instruments and regional charters—like the African Union Constitutive Act and the Inter‑American Democratic Charter—condemn unconstitutional changes and prescribe suspension or sanctions. Transitional arrangements have used truth commissions modeled on South Africa’s post‑apartheid body, amnesty statutes debated in contexts like Chile and Argentina, and prosecutions in courts including the International Criminal Court and ad hoc tribunals. Preventive measures span professionalizing armed forces via academies linked to institutions such as the West Point model and civilian oversight mechanisms exemplified by parliamentary committees in the United Kingdom and Germany.

Category:Political crises