Myanmar

Myanmar
source
Conventional long name	Republic of the Union of Myanmar
Common name	Myanmar
Capital	Naypyidaw
Largest city	Yangon
Official languages	Burmese
Government type	Republic (disputed)
Area km2	676578
Population estimate	54,000,000
Currency	Burmese kyat
Calling code	+95

Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia located on the eastern Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea coasts. It borders Bangladesh, India, China, Laos, and Thailand, and features a long low-lying coastal plain, central dry zone, and mountainous border regions. Naypyidaw is the administrative capital while Yangon remains the largest city and commercial hub.

Etymology

The modern English name derives from the short form of the literary Burmese endonym, rooted in the ethnonym Bamar people and the historic kingdom names such as the Pagan Kingdom and the Konbaung Dynasty. Colonial usage by the British Empire adopted the anglicized form "Burma" from Portuguese and English documents referencing Toungoo Dynasty and regional polities. Post-independence debates over nomenclature involved the AFPFL government, the Caretaker Government of U Nu, and later the State Law and Order Restoration Council, which in 1989 announced a range of toponymic changes including the restoration of traditional names used by Burmese-language literature.

History

Prehistoric and early historic periods saw the rise of the Pyu city-states, the foundation of the Pagan Kingdom under King Anawrahta, and interactions with Srivijaya and the Gupta Empire. The Toungoo Dynasty expanded in the 16th century, confronting the Ayutthaya Kingdom and engaging with Portuguese Empire mercenaries. Konbaung Dynasty conflicts included the Anglo-Burmese Wars against the British East India Company and later the British Raj, leading to colonial incorporation as part of the British Empire and experience of the First Anglo-Burmese War and Second Anglo-Burmese War.

During World War II, the territory was a theater for the Burma Campaign, involving the Japanese Empire, the British Indian Army, the Chinese National Revolutionary Army, and the U.S. Tenth Army. Independence in 1948 followed negotiations among figures such as Aung San and the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League, though Aung San's assassination precipitated political instability. The 1962 coup led by Ne Win initiated the Burmese Way to Socialism, nationalizations, and isolation; later armed conflicts involved the Kachin Independence Army, the Karen National Union, and ethnic militias.

The 1988 pro-democracy protests culminated in the formation of the State Law and Order Restoration Council; the 1990 election victory of the National League for Democracy was not recognized by the junta. Prominent leaders include Aung San Suu Kyi, longtime political prisoner and Nobel Peace Prize laureate, and military figures such as Than Shwe and Min Aung Hlaing. Reforms in the 2010s involved the Union Solidarity and Development Party and ceasefire negotiations with ethnic armed organizations including the United Wa State Army. The 2021 coup d'état returned power to the Tatmadaw leadership, prompted nationwide civil disobedience, international sanctions from entities like the United Nations, the European Union, and the United States Department of State, and intensified clashes with insurgent groups.

Geography and Environment

The country occupies part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot and features major rivers including the Irrawaddy River, the Chindwin River, and the Sittaung River. Mountain ranges include the Arakan Mountains and the Shan Hills, with the highest point at Hkakabo Razi. Coastal features include the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal shorelines with ecosystems like mangroves and the Irrawaddy Delta. Environmental challenges involve deforestation associated with logging companies, impacts from Cyclone Nargis, biodiversity loss affecting species such as the Burmese star tortoise and the Indochinese tiger, and hydropower developments on transboundary rivers affecting relations with China and Thailand.

Government and Politics

The post-independence constitutional history includes the 1947 Constitution promulgated under the Panglong Agreement framework led by Aung San and representatives from ethnic areas. The 1974 Constitution followed Ne Win’s socialist regime; the 2008 Constitution was drafted by the State Peace and Development Council and reserved military seats in the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw. Political actors include the National League for Democracy, the Union Solidarity and Development Party, and the military institution Tatmadaw commanded by figures like Min Aung Hlaing. International diplomatic relations involve membership in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and engagements with states such as China, India, Japan, and Russia as well as organizations like the United Nations General Assembly and the International Court of Justice in disputes over alleged human-rights violations connected to the Rohingya conflict.

Economy

Economic history moved from extractive colonial export systems centered on rice and oil to the nationalized economy of the Burmese Way to Socialism and later market reforms. Key sectors include agriculture in the Irrawaddy Delta producing rice exports, natural gas fields offshore supplying energy to Thailand and China, and gem mining in regions like Mogok and Kachin State. Urban commercial centers such as Yangon and industrial zones near Thilawa Special Economic Zone host foreign investors from China and Singapore. Sanctions from the European Union and the United States Department of the Treasury have impacted foreign direct investment, while banks like Myanmar Economic Bank and infrastructure projects like the Myanmar–China Oil and Gas Pipelines shape monetary flows. Informal cross-border trade with Thailand and Bangladesh remains significant, as do remittances from migrant workers in Thailand and Malaysia.

Demographics and Society

Population centers include Yangon, Mandalay, Naypyidaw, and regional capitals such as Taunggyi and Sittwe. Ethnolinguistic groups feature the Bamar people, Shan people, Karen people, Rakhine people, Kachin people, Chin people, and Mon people, among others. Minority populations include the Rohingya people in Rakhine State and the Zomia upland communities. Languages predominantly include Burmese language with regional tongues such as Shan language, Karen languages, Kachin language, and Mon language. Public health systems have engaged with outbreaks addressed by organizations like the World Health Organization; education reforms involve institutions such as the University of Yangon and the Yangon Technological University. Internal displacement and refugee flows involve neighboring countries and agencies like the UNHCR and International Committee of the Red Cross.

Culture and Religion

Religious life is dominated by Theravada Buddhism with major pilgrimage sites such as the Shwedagon Pagoda, the ancient city of Bagan, and monastic institutions linked to figures like Ledi Sayadaw. Other faiths include Christianity among hill peoples, Islam among communities including those in Rakhine State, and Hinduism present historically in port cities. Cultural expressions include traditional music performed on instruments like the saung harp, classical dance of the Bamar court, lacquerware from Bagan and Bagan, and festivals such as Thingyan and Thadingyut. Literary traditions trace to royal chronicles like the Glass Palace Chronicle and contemporary writers such as Moe Moe (Inya) and Ma Thida. Culinary specialties include dishes such as Mohinga and regional salads enjoyed in markets across Yangon and Mandalay.

Category:Countries of Southeast Asia