Copiers

Copiers
Solomon203 · CC BY-SA 3.0 · source
Name	Photocopier
Caption	Office photocopier
Classification	Office equipment
Invented	1938
Inventor	Chester Carlson
Manufacturer	Xerox, Canon, Ricoh, Konica Minolta, HP

Copiers

Copiers are electromechanical devices that reproduce documents and images by scanning and printing onto paper or other media. Originating from early experiments in electrostatic imaging, copiers became central to workflows in offices, libraries, publishing houses, and government agencies such as the United Nations and European Parliament. Major corporations like Xerox Corporation, Canon Inc., Hewlett-Packard, Ricoh Company, Ltd., and Konica Minolta drove commercial adoption alongside inventors such as Chester Carlson and companies like Haloid Photographic Company.

History

The first practical demonstration of electrophotography by Chester Carlson in 1938 led to partnerships with Haloid and later the launch of the Xerox 914 in 1959, which transformed offices during the post-war expansion of firms including IBM, AT&T, General Motors, and Ford Motor Company. Adoption spread through institutions such as the Library of Congress, British Library, National Archives (United Kingdom), and universities like Harvard University and University of Oxford. Key milestones involved patent litigation and standardization influenced by corporations such as Kodak, Minolta, Sharp Corporation, and events like trade shows hosted at Consumer Electronics Show and Office Products International expositions. Technological shifts mirrored parallel developments by researchers at institutes like Bell Labs and MIT and were affected by regulations in jurisdictions represented by legislatures such as the United States Congress and the European Commission.

Technology and Operation

Modern devices combine optics, electrostatics, and digital electronics developed alongside processors from companies including Intel and ARM Holdings. Core components trace to developments in photoconductive drums and toner chemistry advanced by firms such as Eastman Kodak Company, BASF, and DuPont. Digital imaging sensors and software integrate codecs and standards pushed by organizations like the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the International Organization for Standardization. Networked features rely on protocols implemented by vendors like Microsoft Corporation, Cisco Systems, Apple Inc., and Google LLC to provide scanning, faxing, and printing across environments in entities such as McDonald's Corporation and Walmart. Security concerns intersect with guidance from agencies like the National Institute of Standards and Technology and laws such as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act.

Types and Models

Product lines include bench-top models sold by Brother Industries and higher-capacity floor-standing devices from Xerox and Ricoh used by organizations like Deutsche Bank and Goldman Sachs. Specialized models include wide-format plotters used by NASA and Lockheed Martin, high-speed production presses by Kodak for publishers such as Penguin Random House, and multifunction devices (MFDs) combining printing, scanning, and faxing utilized by agencies like United States Postal Service and corporations like Amazon. Portable and mobile units suit field teams from United Nations peacekeeping missions and NGOs such as Doctors Without Borders. Legacy analog systems like the Xerox 914 sit in museum collections alongside modern digital models from Canon and HP.

Uses and Applications

Offices in firms like Ernst & Young and PricewaterhouseCoopers rely on copiers for record duplication, while educational institutions such as Stanford University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology use them for handouts and archival reproduction. Governments including the European Commission and courts like the Supreme Court of the United States use copying for case files and public records. Publishers such as HarperCollins and Simon & Schuster employ production copiers for short-run printing; architects at firms like Foster + Partners and engineers at Arup Group use large-format reproduction. Media organizations including The New York Times and BBC have used copiers for internal workflows and production support.

Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Maintenance practices draw on manufacturer service networks from Xerox, Canon, Ricoh, and HP and training programs offered by technical schools and vocational institutions like General Assembly. Common issues—paper jams, drum wear, and toner fuser faults—are diagnosed with tools and firmware updates from vendors such as Microsoft and Apple and supported by standards from IEEE. Service contracts and parts supply chains involve distributors such as Ingram Micro and retailers like Staples. For regulated environments, certified technicians follow guidelines from agencies like the Environmental Protection Agency when handling consumables.

Environmental and Health Considerations

Environmental concerns around toner emissions, paper consumption, and energy use prompted sustainability programs by corporations like IKEA and Walmart and regulations influenced by the European Environment Agency and United States Environmental Protection Agency. Recycling initiatives run by organizations such as Goodwill Industries and manufacturers including Canon and Xerox Corporation address waste toner cartridges and e-waste. Occupational health guidance from bodies like the World Health Organization and Occupational Safety and Health Administration covers indoor air quality and exposure risks; standards set by the American National Standards Institute inform safe operation in workplaces including hospitals such as Mayo Clinic and Cleveland Clinic.

Category:Office equipment