Congressional Medal of Honor
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| Congressional Medal of Honor | |
|---|---|
 Unknown authorUnknown author · Public domain · source | |
| Name | Congressional Medal of Honor |
| Awarded by | United States Congress |
| Type | Military decoration |
| Established | 1861 |
| First awarded | 1863 |
| Eligibility | Members of the United States Armed Forces |
| Status | Active |
Congressional Medal of Honor is the highest United States military decoration awarded for valor beyond the call of duty. Instituted during the American Civil War era, it has been presented to service members from conflicts including the Indian Wars, Spanish–American War, Philippine–American War, World War I, World War II, Korean War, Vietnam War, Gulf War, War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), and the Iraq War. The medal recognizes individual acts linked to engagements such as the Battle of Gettysburg, Battle of Antietam, Battle of Midway, Battle of Iwo Jima, Battle of Chosin Reservoir, and Operation Enduring Freedom.
History
The decoration traces roots to measures passed by the First Battle of Bull Run era Congress and later legislation debated in the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives. Early recipients included sailors from the United States Navy and soldiers from the Union Army during the American Civil War and later actions on the Western frontier like the Battle of Little Bighorn and engagements involving the Sioux Wars. Revisions to criteria and design occurred after campaigns such as the Spanish–American War and the Philippine Insurrection, with notable administrative actions during the presidencies of Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Harry S. Truman. Congressional reviews after World War I and World War II prompted retroactive awards tied to battles including the Meuse–Argonne Offensive and the Battle of the Bulge. The medal's history intersects with institutions such as the United States Army Center of Military History, the Naval History and Heritage Command, and the National Archives and Records Administration.
Eligibility and Criteria
Eligibility rules have been shaped by statutes, executive directives, and service branch regulations involving the United States Army, United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, United States Air Force, United States Coast Guard, and reserve components like the Army National Guard and Air National Guard. Criteria emphasize conspicuous gallantry at the risk of life above and beyond the call of duty during engagements like the Tet Offensive and operations such as Operation Iraqi Freedom. Eligibility debates have involved figures like Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, and legal advisers in the Department of Defense. Notable legal and policy instruments influencing eligibility include acts of Congress during the administrations of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Lyndon B. Johnson, and reviews prompted by investigations connected to events like My Lai and inquiries by the Senate Armed Services Committee.
Design and Variants
The medal's visual evolution reflects artists and workshops such as the U.S. Mint and designers associated with federal artisans in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Washington, D.C.. Distinct variants exist for the United States Army, United States Navy, and United States Air Force, with different suspension bars, ribbons, and imagery referencing allegorical figures similar to those found on coins like the Liberty Cap and medals issued in the World War I Victory Medal era. Examples of design changes correspond to periods overseen by officials such as the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy, with models stored and conserved by the Smithsonian Institution and displayed at the National Museum of the United States Army and the National Museum of the Marine Corps.
Awarding Process and Ceremony
Nominations originate in combat units, commands, and installations including Fort Bragg, Camp Pendleton, Pearl Harbor, and Fort Hood, then proceed through chains involving branch headquarters like The Pentagon and advisory bodies such as the Defense Intelligence Agency when relevant. Reviews by service secretaries, boards convened by the Secretary of Defense, and final approval by the President of the United States culminate in presentations often conducted at venues like the White House, Arlington National Cemetery, or military bases. Ceremonies have featured presidents from Ulysses S. Grant through Joe Biden, with military escorts from units like the Old Guard and honors including gun salutes used by ceremonial elements from the United States Marine Corps and United States Army Band.
Notable Recipients and Actions
Recipients span historical figures and events: Civil War honorees at Gettysburg and Fort Wagner; World War II heroes at Midway, Normandy landings, and Iwo Jima such as naval aviators and marines; Korean War standouts at Pusan Perimeter and Chosin Reservoir; Vietnam War awardees for actions during operations like Operation Cedar Falls and engagements near Khe Sanh; and modern recipients for valor during Operation Anaconda, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation Iraqi Freedom. Individuals linked to public recognition include combat leaders honored posthumously and living recipients whose stories intersect with media outlets such as The New York Times, The Washington Post, and broadcasters covering the Pentagon.
Controversies and Revisions
The medal's history includes controversies over nominations, racial and religious discrimination in awards, and posthumous upgrades and rescissions. High-profile cases involved reviews prompted by advocacy from families, civil rights organizations such as the NAACP, and congressional inquiries by members of the United States Congress and committees like the House Armed Services Committee. Retroactive awards and upgrades have addressed omissions affecting Asian American and Pacific Islander servicemembers from the World War II era, and reviews under laws enacted during administrations including Bill Clinton and Barack Obama led to actions recognizing previously overlooked valor. Debates over standards have involved military historians from institutions like the United States Army Center of Military History, editorial coverage in publications such as Time (magazine) and Life (magazine), and legal petitions brought before federal courts including filings citing the Uniform Code of Military Justice.