American Indian

American Indian
Name	American Indian
Population	Variable
Regions	North America
Languages	Numerous Indigenous languages
Religions	Diverse spiritual traditions

American Indian refers to the Indigenous peoples originating in what is now the United States and parts of Canada and Mexico. The term encompasses diverse nations, tribes, and communities with distinct languages, cultures, and historical experiences shaped by contact with European colonization and subsequent state policies. Contemporary American Indian peoples participate in tribal, federal, and international affairs, maintaining cultural revival, legal claims, and political movements.

Terminology and Definitions

Terminology surrounding Indigenous identity includes a range of ethnonyms such as Navajo Nation names, Lakota names, and exonyms like Native American and First Nations; usage varies across contexts including Bureau of Indian Affairs forms, tribal constitutions, and scholarly literature. Legal classifications derive from instruments like the Indian Reorganization Act and treaties such as the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), affecting recognition by entities including the United States Congress and the Department of the Interior. Anthropological and linguistic taxonomies reference families like Algonquian languages, Siouan languages, Uto-Aztecan languages, and cultural areas defined by researchers associated with institutions such as the Smithsonian Institution.

History

Pre-contact histories span millennia with archaeological cultures such as the Clovis culture and the Mississippian culture, featuring complex societies like those centered at Cahokia and mound complexes in the Ohio River Valley. European contact began with expeditions including those of Christopher Columbus, Hernán Cortés, and later colonists from England and France, precipitating epidemics, displacement, and conflicts exemplified by events like King Philip's War and the Trail of Tears. U.S. federal Indian policy evolved through legislation and court decisions including the Indian Removal Act, the Dawes Act, and rulings by the United States Supreme Court such as Worcester v. Georgia. Twentieth-century movements included the rise of organizations like the American Indian Movement and legal milestones such as the passage of the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act.

Cultures and Societies

Cultural diversity spans matrilineal societies like the Iroquois Confederacy and nomadic groups such as the Comanche and Sioux nations. Artistic traditions encompass weaving from the Navajo Nation, pottery by the Pueblo peoples, beadwork of the Lakota, and music revitalization linked to performers associated with venues like the Kennedy Center. Oral literatures include creation narratives preserved by speakers of Cherokee language, Ojibwe, and Mayan-related groups in Mesoamerica; ceremonial practices involve gatherings such as the Sun Dance and potlatch ceremonies affected by legislation like the Potlatch ban. Social institutions range from clan systems in Haudenosaunee governance to federated tribal councils recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Legal Status and Sovereignty

Tribal sovereignty rests on historical treaties—examples include the Treaty of Medicine Lodge—and jurisprudence from cases like Johnson v. M'Intosh and McGirt v. Oklahoma. Federally recognized tribes engage with agencies such as the Bureau of Indian Affairs and programs under the Indian Health Service; state-tribal relations involve compacts addressing issues from gaming regulated by the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act to land management influenced by the National Historic Preservation Act. International instruments such as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples inform advocacy and claims before bodies like the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.

Demographics and Distribution

Populations are distributed across reservations such as the Navajo Nation and urban centers including Los Angeles, New York City, and Phoenix. Census reporting by the United States Census Bureau lists ancestry categories and self-identification patterns that intersect with enrollment rules of tribes like the Cherokee Nation and the Oglala Sioux Tribe. Migration trends reflect movements tied to employment, education at institutions such as Haskell Indian Nations University and Sitting Bull College, and rematriation efforts under laws like the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.

Contemporary Issues and Politics

Current political priorities include disputes over resource development exemplified by protests against pipelines such as the Dakota Access Pipeline, healthcare challenges addressed by the Indian Health Service, and education initiatives involving tribal colleges within networks like the American Indian Higher Education Consortium. Economic development strategies leverage enterprises including casinos regulated under the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act and partnerships with federal agencies like the Department of Transportation. Cultural preservation efforts engage museums such as the National Museum of the American Indian and archives at universities like Harvard University with programs for language revitalization tied to communities like the Yupik and Cherokee.

Notable Individuals and Contributions

Prominent leaders and cultural figures include statespeople such as Tecumseh and Sitting Bull; activists like Wilma Mankiller and Russell Means; artists such as Frank R. Wright-era artisans and contemporary figures including Joy Harjo and Louise Erdrich; athletes like Jim Thorpe; and scholars affiliated with institutions like Stanford University and University of California, Berkeley. Contributions span governance exemplified by tribal constitutions modeled after the Indian Reorganization Act, literary works awarded prizes such as the Pulitzer Prize to authors of Indigenous descent, scientific collaborations in archaeology with the Smithsonian Institution, and legal precedent-setting cases litigated before the United States Supreme Court.

Category:Indigenous peoples of North America