Southern Ming

Southern Ming. The Southern Ming was a series of rump states in Southern China that claimed legitimacy as the continuation of the Ming dynasty following its collapse in Beijing in 1644. These regimes, led by various imperial princes, resisted the expanding Qing dynasty for nearly four decades, with their struggle intertwined with the larger Ming–Qing transition. The period was marked by intense military conflict, internal factionalism, and complex alliances with former Ming loyalists, peasant rebels, and even European powers, before final defeat in 1662.

History

The collapse began with the suicide of the Chongzhen Emperor after the rebel army of Li Zicheng captured Beijing. The Hongguang Emperor (Zhu Yousong) was then proclaimed emperor in Nanjing, the secondary capital of the Ming dynasty, establishing the first and most prominent regime. This court was quickly undermined by factional strife between officials like Ma Shiying and Shi Kefa. Following the rapid fall of Yangzhou and Nanjing to Manchu forces led by Prince Dodo, a succession of other princes were enthroned, including the Longwu Emperor (Zhu Yujian) in Fuzhou, the Shaowu Emperor (Zhu Yuyue) in Guangzhou, and the Yongli Emperor (Zhu Youlang) who became the longest-reigning monarch. The Yongli Emperor's court was peripatetic, fleeing from Guangxi to Yunnan and eventually into exile in the Kingdom of Ava under pressure from Qing commanders like Hong Chengchou and Wu Sangui.

Government and administration

The various courts attempted to replicate the Ming dynasty bureaucratic structure, with the Six Ministries and the Censorate operating in diminished form. Key administrative figures included He Tengjiao, Qu Shisi, and the eunuch Ma Jixiang, who wielded significant influence. However, authority was severely fragmented by geographic isolation, constant military retreat, and bitter rivalries between scholar-officials and military leaders. Regional power often lay with loyalist commanders like Li Dingguo and Sun Kewang, who operated more as allied warlords. The regimes relied heavily on the support of local gentry in regions like Zhejiang, Fujian, and Lingnan, but struggled to collect taxes or project authority beyond their immediate armies.

Military conflicts and resistance

Resistance was initially coordinated by officials like Shi Kefa, who made a famous last stand at the Battle of Yangzhou. Major early defeats included the Battle of Jiangyin and the sack of Nanjing. Subsequently, the military struggle was carried on by a complex array of forces including the remnants of the Ming dynasty army, peasant rebels like Zhang Xianzhong's former troops now led by Li Dingguo, and maritime powers like Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong). Koxinga and Zhang Huangyan launched major campaigns along the Yangtze River and Fujian coast, culminating in the Siege of Nanjing (1659). In the southwest, Li Dingguo won significant victories such as the Battle of Hengzhou against Kong Youde before being gradually pushed back. The final campaigns were directed by Wu Sangui, who pursued the Yongli Emperor into Burma, leading to the Siege of Ava and the emperor's capture and execution in Kunming.

Culture and society

The era was a tumultuous period of cultural expression and trauma, documented by loyalist scholars like Wang Fuzhi, Gu Yanwu, and Huang Zongxi, whose works later influenced Qing dynasty thought. The martyrdom of figures like Shi Kefa became a central theme in loyalist literature and drama. Roman Catholicism had a notable presence, with courtiers like Sun Yuanhua and the Yongli Emperor's family, including Empress Dowager Wang and the Crown Prince Cihuan, converting; the emperor sent a mission to the Pope via Michael Shen Fu-Tsung. The period also saw continued activity by the Donglin movement remnants and other literary societies that covertly opposed Qing dynasty rule. Economic activity was severely disrupted by warfare, though port cities like Xiamen under Koxinga remained hubs of trade.

Legacy and historiography

The Southern Ming period is memorialized as a poignant chapter of loyalist resistance in Chinese historiography, often termed the Ming–Qing transition. Its history was meticulously compiled by later scholars, including Qian Qianyi and in the Ming History project under the Kangxi Emperor. The legacy of Koxinga is particularly prominent, celebrated as a national hero in both China and Taiwan for founding the Kingdom of Tungning, a final bastion of Ming legitimacy. The struggle influenced anti-Qing sentiment for centuries, inspiring revolutionaries during the Xinhai Revolution. Modern assessments, such as those by historians Lynn A. Struve and Frederic Wakeman Jr., analyze the period's complex politics and the ultimate failure of the loyalist cause against the consolidating Qing dynasty.

Category:Former countries in Chinese history Category:17th century in China Category:Ming dynasty