Risorgimento

Risorgimento. The Risorgimento was the 19th-century political and social movement that resulted in the consolidation of different states of the Italian Peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. The process was driven by a confluence of nationalism, liberalism, and revolutionary fervor, challenging the dominance of the Austrian Empire and the Papal States. It culminated in the proclamation of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy as king, though the process of territorial completion continued through 1870 with the Capture of Rome.

Background and origins

The Congress of Vienna in 1815 restored the pre-Napoleonic Wars political order, dividing the peninsula among several powers. The Kingdom of Sardinia under the House of Savoy, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ruled by the Bourbons, the Papal States, and various smaller duchies like Modena and Parma were largely under Austrian influence. Intellectual currents such as romanticism and the writings of Vincenzo Gioberti fostered a cultural nationalism, while secret societies like the Carbonari staged failed uprisings including the Revolutions of 1820. The July Revolution in France further inspired liberal and nationalist aspirations against the conservative Holy Alliance.

Key events and wars

The period was marked by several pivotal conflicts and insurrections. The Revolutions of 1848 saw widespread uprisings, including the Five Days of Milan and the proclamation of the Roman Republic, later crushed by French forces at the Siege of Rome (1849). The Second Italian War of Independence in 1859, orchestrated by Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour with the support of Napoleon III of France, resulted in key victories at the Battle of Solferino and the Battle of Magenta, leading to the annexation of Lombardy. In 1860, the Expedition of the Thousand, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, a decisive campaign culminating in the Battle of Volturnus. The Third Italian War of Independence in 1866, fought alongside Prussia against the Austrian Empire, led to the acquisition of Veneto despite Italian military setbacks at the Battle of Custoza and the Battle of Lissa.

Major figures and movements

Central to the movement were ideologues, monarchs, and revolutionaries. Giuseppe Mazzini founded the revolutionary group Young Italy and advocated for a republican Italy, influencing the Roman Republic. The pragmatic statesman Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, engineered diplomatic alliances and modernization. The military hero Giuseppe Garibaldi commanded the Red Shirts during the Expedition of the Thousand. Monarchist support came from Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and his father Charles Albert of Sardinia, who granted the Statuto Albertino constitution. Other significant voices included the nationalist writer Alessandro Manzoni and the revolutionary Carlo Cattaneo.

Unification process

The formal unification was a staggered diplomatic and military process. Following the 1859 war, the Treaty of Zurich ceded Lombardy to Sardinia, while plebiscites in Parma, Modena, and the Tuscany led to their annexation in 1860. The success of the Expedition of the Thousand prompted the Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in March 1861, with Turin as its capital. The Treaty of Vienna (1866) secured Veneto, and the Capture of Rome in 1870, following the withdrawal of French troops during the Franco-Prussian War, completed the process, ending the temporal power of the Pope and making Rome the capital.

Aftermath and legacy

The newly unified Kingdom of Italy faced immediate challenges, including the brigandage war in the south, significant economic disparities between regions, and the enduring Roman Question with the Papacy. The state grappled with integrating diverse administrative systems and fostering a national identity, a process known as making Italians. The legacy of the Risorgimento profoundly influenced Fascist rhetoric under Benito Mussolini and remains a central pillar of modern Italian historiography and national consciousness. Key monuments like the Altare della Patria in Rome and the writings of Benedetto Croce commemorate its ideals and conflicts.