Capture of Rome

Capture of Rome. The Capture of Rome on 20 September 1870 was the final event of the Risorgimento, the political and social movement that consolidated the Kingdom of Italy. The military action, led by General Raffaele Cadorna under the authority of King Victor Emmanuel II, resulted in the annexation of Rome and the remnant of the Papal States, ending the temporal power of the Pope. This event completed the unification of Italy and established Rome as the nation's capital, resolving the long-standing Roman Question.

Background

The process of Italian unification had been advancing throughout the 19th century, driven by figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi and statesmen such as Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour. Following the Second Italian War of Independence and the Expedition of the Thousand, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861, with its capital first at Turin and then Florence. However, the Papal States, under Pope Pius IX and protected by a French garrison following the Battle of Mentana, remained a major obstacle, with Rome itself symbolically and politically out of reach. The First Vatican Council and the doctrine of Papal infallibility further entrenched the Pope's position, while Italian nationalists viewed the city as their natural capital, a sentiment encapsulated by the phrase Roma Capitale.

Prelude and opposing forces

The geopolitical landscape shifted dramatically with the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in July 1870. The French Empire, the primary guarantor of Papal sovereignty, was forced to withdraw its troops from Rome to defend its homeland against the Kingdom of Prussia. This left the Papal States militarily isolated. The Italian government, led by Prime Minister Giovanni Lanza and his Minister of Foreign Affairs Emilio Visconti Venosta, saw a strategic opportunity. King Victor Emmanuel II issued a final appeal to Pope Pius IX for a peaceful handover, which was refused. The Papal army, commanded by General Hermann Kanzler, numbered roughly 13,000 men, including the international Papal Zouaves and the Swiss Guard. Opposing them was the Italian V Corps, over 50,000 strong, under the command of General Raffaele Cadorna.

The capture of the city

On the morning of 20 September, after a brief artillery bombardment, Italian forces breached the city's ancient Aurelian Walls at the Porta Pia. The ensuing battle was short but intense, with fierce fighting occurring near the Villa Patrizi and along the Via Nomentana. The Bersaglieri, the Italian army's elite light infantry, played a prominent role in the assault. Within a few hours, General Kanzler, recognizing the futility of further resistance, ordered a ceasefire and surrendered the city. The Pope's forces retreated to the Leonine City, the area encompassing the Vatican Hill and St. Peter's Basilica. Pope Pius IX, declaring himself a "prisoner in the Vatican," refused to recognize the new Italian authority and withdrew entirely into the Apostolic Palace.

Aftermath and consequences

The immediate aftermath was formalized by the Law of Guarantees, passed by the Italian Parliament in 1871, which sought to define the Pope's rights and the relationship between the Italian state and the Holy See. It granted the Pope sovereignty, extraterritoriality, and an annual allowance, but Pius IX rejected it outright. In July 1871, King Victor Emmanuel II made a state entry into Rome, which was officially declared the capital of Italy, succeeding Florence. The annexation was ratified by a plebiscite in October, with overwhelming support. The Pope's intransigence led to the Roman Question, a diplomatic and religious stalemate that would last for nearly six decades, during which Catholics, under the policy of Non expedit, were discouraged from participating in Italian political life.

Legacy and historical significance

The Capture of Rome marked the definitive end of the Risorgimento and the territorial consolidation of the modern Kingdom of Italy. It transformed Rome from a theocratic capital into a national and administrative center, leading to significant urban development and modernization projects. The event's long-term religious and political ramifications were finally resolved by the Lateran Treaty of 1929, negotiated between Benito Mussolini and Pope Pius XI, which created the independent Vatican City state. The date of 20 September was celebrated as a national holiday, the Anniversary of the Capture of Rome, until its abolition in the 1930s. The capture remains a pivotal moment in both Italian national history and the history of the Papacy, symbolizing the clash and eventual accommodation between modern secular statehood and ancient religious authority. Category:1870 in Italy Category:Battles of the Risorgimento Category:History of Rome