Nanking Massacre

Nanking Massacre. The Nanking Massacre was a period of mass murder and sexual violence committed by the Imperial Japanese Army after the fall of Nanking, the capital of the Republic of China (1912–1949), during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The atrocities began on December 13, 1937, upon the city's capture and lasted for six weeks, resulting in the deaths of an estimated tens of thousands to over three hundred thousand Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants. The event remains a central point of historical and political contention between Japan and China, symbolizing the brutal nature of the war in the Asia-Pacific theater.

Background

The massacre occurred within the broader context of the Second Sino-Japanese War, which began with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in July 1937. Following fierce battles in Shanghai during the Battle of Shanghai, the Imperial Japanese Army advanced toward Nanking, then the capital of Chiang Kai-shek's government. The National Revolutionary Army, despite a determined defense led by commander Tang Shengzhi, was ultimately overwhelmed. As Japanese forces, including the Shanghai Expeditionary Army and the 10th Army under the overall command of Iwane Matsui, approached the city, many residents fled, but hundreds of thousands remained. The order to "kill all captives" is believed to have been circulated among Japanese troops, setting the stage for the impending horror.

The massacre

Upon breaching the city walls on December 13, Japanese soldiers launched a systematic campaign of violence. Soldiers conducted widespread kill on sight operations against suspected former combatants, leading to the mass execution of thousands of prisoners of war at sites like the Mufu Mountain and along the Yangtze River. Civilians were hunted in the Safety Zone established by the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone, led by John Rabe and Minnie Vautrin, though the zone offered limited protection. The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal and the Nanking War Crimes Tribunal later documented countless instances of bayonet practice, burning alive, and decapitation. Concurrently, the mass rape of women and girls of all ages was pervasive, with many victims subsequently murdered. The period was also marked by widespread looting and arson, destroying large swaths of the city.

Aftermath

In the immediate wake of the violence, the city was left traumatized, with corpses filling streets and waterways. The international community reacted with horror; Western journalists like Frank Tillman Durdin of the *New York Times* and George Fitch reported extensively on the atrocities, galvanizing foreign opinion. After World War II, the massacre was a major focus of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, where generals Iwane Matsui and Kōki Hirota were found guilty and executed for their responsibility. Within Japan, the San Francisco Peace Treaty and subsequent diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China did not fully address historical perceptions, leaving a legacy of dispute. The Chinese government, following the Chinese Civil War, has consistently emphasized the event in historical education.

Historical assessment and legacy

The historical assessment of the massacre is characterized by significant debate, particularly regarding the death toll. Mainstream scholarly estimates, supported by figures like Iris Chang in her book *The Rape of Nanking*, range from 40,000 to over 300,000, with the International Military Tribunal for the Far East estimating 200,000. In Japan, perspectives vary, with some nationalist scholars and politicians associated with Nippon Kaigi engaging in historical revisionism, at times denying or minimizing the scale, which has repeatedly sparked diplomatic incidents with South Korea and China. The governments of Xi Jinping and Shinzo Abe have often been at odds over this history, impacting Sino-Japanese relations. The event is universally regarded by historians outside nationalist circles as one of the worst atrocities of the 20th century.

Memorials and remembrance

The massacre is memorialized extensively in China. The primary site is the Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders in Nanjing, which includes a museum, skeletal remains, and a large memorial square. The Chinese government observes a National Memorial Day for Nanjing Massacre Victims annually on December 13, featuring a city-wide siren. In the United States, institutions like the University of California, Berkeley and the Simon Wiesenthal Center have hosted related exhibitions. Films such as *City of Life and Death* and documentaries have brought the history to international audiences. Conversely, public remembrance in Japan is limited and contentious, with visits by officials to the Yasukuni Shrine, which enshrines war criminals, often provoking regional condemnation.

Category:Second Sino-Japanese War Category:Mass murder in 1937 Category:War crimes in Asia