Naming and Necessity

Naming and Necessity is a seminal work in analytic philosophy by the American philosopher Saul Kripke. It comprises a series of three lectures delivered at Princeton University in 1970, later published as a monograph by Harvard University Press. The work fundamentally challenged the dominant descriptivist theory of names associated with Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and the later philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, while introducing revolutionary ideas about modality, essentialism, and the nature of philosophical inquiry.

Overview and background

The lectures were presented in January 1970 under the auspices of the Princeton University philosophy department, with notable attendees including David Lewis and Hilary Putnam. Kripke's arguments were developed against the backdrop of mid-20th century philosophy dominated by the logical positivism of the Vienna Circle and the ordinary language philosophy stemming from Oxford University. Key influences on Kripke's thought include his own prior work in modal logic, particularly his development of Kripke semantics for systems like S5 modal logic, and his critical engagement with the works of W. V. O. Quine, who was skeptical of modal notions. The lectures were transcribed and circulated informally before their official publication, quickly achieving a legendary status within the philosophical community.

Central theses

Kripke advances several interconnected theses that reconfigure the landscape of analytic philosophy. He argues that proper names are **rigid designators**, meaning they refer to the same object in every possible world where that object exists. This directly opposes the Frege–Russell view that names are synonymous with a cluster of definite descriptions. Furthermore, Kripke defends the concept of **necessary *a posteriori* truths**, such as "Hesperus is Phosphorus" or "Water is H2O", which are discovered through empirical investigation but hold with metaphysical necessity. He also revives Aristotelian essentialism, arguing that objects have essential properties, like the atomic number of Gold or the biological origin of an individual, which are necessary to their identity.

The causal theory of reference

As an alternative to descriptivism, Kripke sketches a **causal-historical theory of reference** for names. On this view, a name is introduced via an initial "baptism" or dubbing ceremony, perhaps using a description to fix the referent, as when the planet Neptune was postulated by Urbain Le Verrier. The name is then passed through a historical chain of communication within a linguistic community, with each user intending to refer to the same entity as the previous link. This theory explains how we can refer to individuals like Richard Feynman or Cicero without knowing uniquely identifying descriptions. The work of Hilary Putnam on natural kind terms, especially in his essay "The Meaning of 'Meaning'", developed in parallel and reinforced this externalist approach to meaning.

Criticisms and responses

Kripke's arguments provoked extensive debate and criticism. Prominent descriptivists like John Searle argued in his paper "Proper Names" that the causal theory failed to account for the cognitive significance of names. Gareth Evans, in his book *The Varieties of Reference*, proposed a hybrid "causal-descriptive theory" to address perceived gaps. Philosophers like Nathan Salmon and Scott Soames have defended and refined Kripke's arguments, while others, such as Keith Donnellan with his concept of the referential use of descriptions, found affinities with Kripke's work. Debates also continued over the coherence of *a posteriori necessity*, with some critics alleging a confusion between metaphysical necessity and epistemic necessity.

Influence and legacy

*Naming and Necessity* has had a profound and enduring impact across multiple philosophical disciplines. In the philosophy of mind, it provided crucial arguments against type identity theory and fueled the development of non-reductive physicalism and arguments about qualia. In metaphysics, it led to a resurgence of work on modality, possible worlds, and essence, influencing thinkers like Alvin Plantinga and David Lewis. Its methodological influence is seen in the rise of the "Canberra Plan" and the work of Frank Jackson. The book remains a central text in university curricula, continuously engaged with in journals like *The Journal of Philosophy* and *Philosophical Review*, securing Kripke's place as one of the most important philosophers of the 20th century.

Category:Philosophy books Category:Philosophy of language Category:1972 non-fiction books