History of Xinjiang

History of Xinjiang. The vast region of Xinjiang, located in the heart of Central Asia, has a long and complex history shaped by its position along the Silk Road. It has been home to diverse peoples, including the Tocharians, Saka, and various Turkic peoples, and has been influenced by major empires from the Han dynasty to the Mongol Empire and the Qing dynasty. Its modern history is marked by its integration into the People's Republic of China and its status as the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

Prehistory and early inhabitants

The earliest known inhabitants of the Tarim Basin were the Tocharians, an Indo-European people whose mummified remains have been found at sites like Xiaohe Cemetery. These early cultures, such as the Afanasievo culture and later the Saka, engaged in agriculture and trade. The region was also part of the sphere of influence of the Xiongnu confederation, which dominated the Mongolian Plateau. Important archaeological sites include Jiaohe and Gaochang, which show early urban development and cultural exchange across the Eurasian Steppe.

Han dynasty and Silk Road era

The Han dynasty first extended its influence into the region, then known as the Western Regions, following the missions of Zhang Qian to seek alliances against the Xiongnu. This led to the establishment of the Protectorate of the Western Regions and military outposts like those at Loulan. The Silk Road flourished, connecting Chang'an with the Roman Empire via oasis cities such as Kashgar, Khotan, and Turpan. The Han–Xiongnu War was pivotal in securing these routes, and later, the Tang dynasty reasserted control under figures like Emperor Taizong of Tang, establishing the Anxi Protectorate to administer the area.

Turkic and Mongol periods

From the 6th century onward, the region saw the rise and dominance of various Turkic peoples, including the Göktürks and the Uyghur Khaganate, which established a capital at Karabalgasun before migrating into the Tarim Basin. The Kara-Khanid Khanate, a Turkic state that converted to Islam, conquered Kashgar and Khotan, beginning the region's gradual Islamization. The Mongol Empire, under Genghis Khan and his successors, incorporated the area into the Chagatai Khanate. Later, the Buddhist Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Oirats, rose to power, clashing with the Qing dynasty and the Kazakhs.

Qing dynasty rule and integration

The Qing dynasty under the Qianlong Emperor conquered the region after defeating the Dzungar Khanate in the Dzungar–Qing War, followed by the Ten Great Campaigns. This conquest led to the establishment of Xinjiang as a province in 1884, following the recommendations of Zuo Zongtang after the suppression of the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877). The Qing promoted settlement through the Tuntian system and faced challenges from the Kokand-based rebel Yaqub Beg. The Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) finalized borders with the Russian Empire, cementing Qing control over the region.

20th century to present

Following the Xinhai Revolution, Xinjiang was ruled by a series of warlords like Yang Zengxin and Sheng Shicai, who aligned with the Soviet Union. The East Turkestan Republic was briefly declared in Kashgar in 1933 and again in Ili in 1944. After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the region was incorporated as the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in 1955. Major infrastructure projects like the Karakoram Highway and the Tarim Desert Highway were built. The region has seen periods of tension, including the Baren Township riot and the Ürümqi riots, amid policies promoting development and integration such as the Belt and Road Initiative.

Category:History of Xinjiang