1990 United States census

1990 United States census
Name	1990 United States census
Country	United States
Date	April 1, 1990
Population	248,709,873
Percent change	+9.8%
Region type	most populous state
Region	California, (29,760,021)
Region type2	least populous state
Region2	Wyoming, (453,588)
Previous census	1980 United States census
Previous year	1980
Next census	2000 United States census
Next year	2000

1990 United States census was the twenty-first decennial enumeration mandated by the United States Constitution and conducted by the Census Bureau. It determined the resident population of the United States to be 248,709,873, an increase of 9.8 percent over the 1980 census count. The data collected was pivotal for reapportioning seats in the House of Representatives and guiding the distribution of federal funds.

Background and purpose

The constitutional mandate for a decennial census, established in Article I, Section 2, required this enumeration to reapportion congressional districts among the states. This process directly affected the balance of power in the United States Congress, particularly the House of Representatives. The data was also critical for implementing provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and for allocating hundreds of billions of dollars in federal assistance to states and localities under programs like Medicaid and the Surface Transportation Assistance Act. The Department of Commerce, under which the Census Bureau operates, faced significant pressure to ensure an accurate count amidst growing demographic complexity.

Data collection and methodology

For the 1990 census, the Census Bureau primarily used a mail-out/mail-back questionnaire system, a method refined since the 1970 census. Extensive advertising campaigns, including partnerships with organizations like the NAACP and the LULAC, aimed to improve participation rates. Enumerators conducted in-person follow-ups for non-responding households. The census introduced a new "short form" with basic questions for all households and a more detailed "long form" distributed to a sample. Technological advancements included the use of FOSDIC (Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to Computers) for data capture, though the process faced criticism for being outdated compared to emerging optical character recognition systems.

Population findings

The official count of 248,709,873 confirmed the United States as the world's third-most populous nation at the time, behind the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The fastest-growing state was Nevada, with a dramatic 50.1 percent increase since 1980, while California remained the most populous state. Major cities like New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago retained their top rankings, though Sun Belt metropolitan areas such as Phoenix and Dallas showed substantial growth. The census also reported a national population density of 70.3 persons per square mile.

Demographic changes and trends

The 1990 data revealed significant shifts in the nation's ethnic and racial composition. The Asian American population grew by over 95 percent, influenced by immigration reforms like the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. The Hispanic population increased by 53 percent, with major concentrations in states like California, Texas, and Florida. The census also tracked a continuing migration from the Rust Belt to the Sun Belt, and a rise in the number of people identifying as being of German or Irish ancestry. Furthermore, it documented a steady increase in median age, signaling the advancing age of the Baby Boom generation.

Redistricting and political impact

Reapportionment based on the 1990 census results shifted 19 seats in the House of Representatives. States in the West and Southwest, such as California, Florida, and Texas, gained representation, while industrial states in the Midwest and Northeast, including New York and Pennsylvania, lost seats. This redistribution intensified political battles over redistricting, leading to numerous court challenges under the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The data was used to create new majority-minority districts, which subsequently influenced the outcomes of the 1992 congressional elections.

Data availability and legacy

Summary data was released on tape and CD-ROM, representing a shift toward digital dissemination, though not yet via the Internet. The census faced notable controversies, including a persistent undercount of minority groups and urban poor, which prompted lawsuits from cities like New York City and Los Angeles. These shortcomings influenced methodological changes for the 2000 census, such as increased statistical adjustment planning. The 1990 census remains a vital demographic snapshot, used by historians, sociologists, and policymakers to understand late-20th-century United States society and to benchmark longitudinal studies like the Panel Study of Income Dynamics.

Category:1990 censuses Category:1990 in the United States