Andrew Johnson

Andrew Johnson
Mathew Benjamin Brady · Public domain · source
Name	Andrew Johnson
Caption	17th President of the United States
Order	17th
Office	President of the United States
Vicepresident	None
Term start	April 15, 1865
Term end	March 4, 1869
Predecessor	Abraham Lincoln
Successor	Ulysses S. Grant
Office2	16th Vice President of the United States
Vicepresident2	Abraham Lincoln
Term start2	March 4, 1865
Term end2	April 15, 1865
Predecessor2	Hannibal Hamlin
Successor2	Schuyler Colfax
Office3	Military Governor of Tennessee
Term start3	March 12, 1862
Term end3	March 4, 1865
Predecessor3	Isham G. Harris (Governor)
Successor3	William G. Brownlow (Governor)
Birth date	29 December 1808
Birth place	Raleigh, North Carolina
Death date	31 July 1875
Death place	Elizabethton, Tennessee
Party	Democratic (c. 1839–1875)
Otherparty	National Union (1864–1868)
Spouse	Eliza McCardle, May 17, 1827

Andrew Johnson Andrew Johnson was the 17th President of the United States, ascending to the office following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865. His presidency, occurring during the pivotal early years of Reconstruction, was defined by a profound and bitter conflict with the Radical Republicans in Congress over the civil and political status of newly freed African Americans. Johnson's staunch opposition to federal protections for Freedmen and his lenient policies toward the former Confederate states significantly shaped the post-war struggle for civil rights and left a complex legacy on the nation's path toward unity and equality.

Early Life and Political Career

Born into poverty in Raleigh, North Carolina, Andrew Johnson never attended formal school and was apprenticed as a tailor. He moved to Greeneville, Tennessee, where he established a tailoring business and entered local politics. A self-made man with a deep-seated belief in Jacksonian democracy, Johnson rose through the ranks as an alderman, mayor, state legislator, U.S. Representative, Governor of Tennessee, and U.S. Senator. As a Democrat, he was a fervent supporter of the Homestead Act and a vocal defender of the common man against aristocratic privilege. His political identity was firmly rooted in the South, yet he remained a staunch Unionist, famously refusing to secede with his state. This loyalty led Abraham Lincoln to appoint him Military Governor of Tennessee in 1862 and later select him as the National Union vice-presidential candidate in the 1864 election.

Presidency and Reconstruction

Johnson assumed the presidency during a national crisis. His approach to Reconstruction, outlined in his Amnesty Proclamations, was exceedingly lenient toward the former Confederacy. He quickly granted pardons to many former Confederate leaders and allowed Southern states to reconstitute governments with minimal conditions, primarily requiring them to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment and repudiate secession. These new state governments, however, promptly enacted Black Codes—restrictive laws designed to control the labor and movement of Freedmen and effectively restore a system akin to slavery. Johnson’s policy, often called Presidential Reconstruction, prioritized rapid restoration of the Union and state sovereignty over securing the civil rights of the emancipated population, creating immediate friction with congressional Republicans.

Conflict with Radical Republicans

The core conflict of Johnson’s administration was with the Radical Republicans, a powerful faction in Congress led by men like Thaddeus Stevens in the House and Charles Sumner in the Senate. They believed Reconstruction must fundamentally transform Southern society, guarantee civil rights and suffrage for African Americans, and prevent former Confederates from regaining political power. Johnson’s obstruction of their agenda was relentless. He vetoed key legislation, including the Freedmen's Bureau bills intended to provide aid, education, and legal protection to freed slaves and the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which aimed to grant citizenship and equal protection under the law. Congress, in turn, overrode his vetoes, marking a historic shift of power from the executive to the legislative branch.

Veto of Civil Rights Legislation

Johnson’s veto messages crystallized his constitutional and political philosophy, which had dire consequences for civil rights. He argued that the Civil Rights Act of 1866 was an unconstitutional overreach of federal power into state affairs and a discrimination against the “white race.” He similarly opposed the Freedmen's Bureau as an unwarranted and expensive expansion of federal authority. Most consequentially, he campaigned vigorously against the Fourteenth Amendment, which guaranteed citizenship and equal protection, urging Southern states to reject it. These actions alienated moderate Republicans and solidified the alliance in Congress that would pursue Radical Reconstruction. His vetoes were overridden, and the legislation, along with the subsequent Reconstruction Acts, laid the legal foundation for a more assertive federal role in protecting citizens' rights.

Impeachment and Acquittal

The conflict reached its zenith when Johnson deliberately violated the Tenure of Office Act, a law passed by Congress to limit his power, by attempting to remove Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, a Radical Republican ally. The House of Representatives responded by voting to impeach Johnson, making him the first President to be impeached. The charges centered on his alleged violation of this act and his general obstruction of Reconstruction. His trial before the Senate was a monumental event. Johnson’s defense, led by attorney William M. Evarts, argued the charges were politically motivated. The final vote fell one short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction, with several moderate Republicans, including Senator Edmund G. Ross, voting for acquittal. This preserved the separation of powers but left Johnson a severely weakened executive.

Post-Presidency and Legacy

After leaving the White House, Johnson remained active in Tennessee politics. He was elected again to the U.S. Senate in 1875, the only former president to do so, where he served briefly before his death later that year. Johnson’s legacy is predominantly defined by his presidency during Reconstruction. Historians widely regard his tenure as a failure for the cause of racial equality and civil rights. His restoration of former Confederate elites to power, his tolerance of Black Codes and Klan violence, and his bitter opposition to congressional measures critically hindered the effort to secure civil rights for African Americans in the post-war South. This contributed to the eventual imposition of Jim Crow laws and the long delay in achieving meaningful racial equality. His presidency stands as a cautionary tale of a leader who, while committed to the Union and certain democratic principles, fundamentally failed to grasp the necessity of federal action to protect the liberties of all citizens.