Kingdom of Tungning

Kingdom of Tungning
Luuva · CC BY 3.0 · source
Conventional long name	Kingdom of Tungning
Common name	Tungning
Status	Rump state of the Southern Ming
Year start	1661
Year end	1683
P1	Dutch Formosa
S1	Taiwan under Qing rule
Capital	Anping (1661–1663), Tungtu (1663–1683)
Common languages	Hokkien
Government type	Absolute monarchy
Title leader	King
Leader1	Zheng Chenggong
Year leader1	1661–1662
Leader2	Zheng Jing
Year leader2	1662–1681
Leader3	Zheng Keshuang
Year leader3	1681–1683

Kingdom of Tungning

The Kingdom of Tungning was a Ming loyalist state that ruled parts of southwestern Taiwan from 1661 to 1683. It was founded by the military leader Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) following his successful Siege of Fort Zeelandia, which expelled the Dutch East India Company (VOC) from its colonial base on the island. The kingdom's existence represents a pivotal episode in the history of Dutch colonization in Southeast Asia, marking a significant reversal of European power and establishing the first major Han Chinese polity to govern Taiwan, which shaped the island's subsequent political and economic development.

Historical Background and Dutch Precedence

Prior to the establishment of the Kingdom of Tungning, the island of Taiwan was under the colonial administration of the Dutch East India Company, known as Dutch Formosa. The VOC established a trading base at Fort Zeelandia in 1624, seeking to control regional trade routes and participate in the lucrative trade with China and Japan. Dutch rule involved the exploitation of local resources, such as deer skins and sugar cane, and attempts to missionize the indigenous Austronesian population. This period of Dutch colonization in Southeast Asia was concurrent with other VOC holdings like the Dutch East Indies and interactions with the Spanish in northern Taiwan. The fall of the Ming dynasty to the Manchu-led Qing dynasty on the Chinese mainland in 1644 created a wave of Ming loyalist refugees and military forces, setting the stage for a confrontation in Taiwan.

Establishment by Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong)

The kingdom was founded in 1661 by the Ming loyalist general Zheng Chenggong, known in the West as Koxinga. After failing to dislodge the Qing from mainland China, Koxinga turned his formidable naval forces toward Taiwan, seeking a secure base of operations. In April 1661, his fleet of hundreds of warships and 25,000 soldiers landed at Luerhmen and laid siege to the Dutch stronghold of Fort Zeelandia. The Siege of Fort Zeelandia lasted nine months, culminating in the surrender of the Dutch governor, Frederick Coyett, in February 1662. This victory effectively ended 38 years of Dutch colonial rule and allowed Koxinga to proclaim the Kingdom of Tungning, meaning "Eastern Peace," with its capital at Anping.

Administration and Military Rule

The administration of the Kingdom of Tungning was a military dictatorship structured around the personal authority of the Zheng family. Koxinga and his successors, Zheng Jing and Zheng Keshuang, ruled as monarchs. The government was divided into the traditional Ming-style Six Ministries and a military command. The island was organized into counties, and a significant effort was made to implement a legal code and promote Confucian education. The state remained fundamentally a military garrison, with soldiers also serving as farmers in the Tuntian system to achieve self-sufficiency. This period saw the first systematic Han Chinese settlement and agricultural development in Taiwan, overshadowing the prior Dutch colonial structures.

Economic System and Maritime Trade

The economy of Tungning was built upon the maritime trade network previously dominated by the Zheng family, often labeled as part of the larger "Zheng maritime empire." It continued extensive trade with Japan, Ryukyu, Vietnam, and various ports in Southeast Asia, exporting sugar, deer skins, and silk. The kingdom also engaged in smuggling and privateering against Qing vessels, challenging the Qing dynasty's Haijin (maritime prohibition) policies. Internally, the government promoted agriculture, particularly rice and sugar cultivation, by allocating land to soldiers and encouraging migration from Fujian and Guangdong provinces. This economic model transformed Taiwan from a peripheral trading post into a productive agricultural colony integrated into East Asian trade circuits.

Relations with the Dutch and Regional Powers

Following their expulsion, the Dutch East India Company made several unsuccessful attempts to reconquer Taiwan, most notably during the Dutch–Tungning conflict of 1663-1664- in (1661-