Xerxes I

Xerxes I
Darafsh · CC BY 3.0 · source
Name	Xerxes I
Title	King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire
Reign	486 – 465 BC
Predecessor	Darius the Great
Successor	Artaxerxes I
Birth date	c. 518 BC
Death date	465 BC
Dynasty	Achaemenid
Father	Darius the Great
Mother	Atossa
Burial place	Naqsh-e Rostam

Xerxes I. Xerxes I (c. 518 – 465 BC), also known as Xerxes the Great, was the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, ruling from 486 to 465 BC. His reign is most famous for the massive invasion of Greece, a campaign that ended in failure and marked a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars. Within the context of Ancient Babylon, his rule was defined by a harsh response to rebellions, which led to the permanent degradation of the city's traditional political status and its integration as a mere satrapy, stripping away its ancient privileges and royal symbolism.

Early Life and Accession

Xerxes I was born around 518 BC, the son of Darius the Great and Atossa, who was a daughter of the empire's founder, Cyrus the Great. This lineage through both the conqueror and the consolidator of the empire gave him a powerful claim to the throne. He was designated as heir apparent over his older half-brother, Artobazan, a decision influenced by his maternal connection to Cyrus. His upbringing was within the imperial court at Persepolis, where he was prepared for kingship. Upon the death of Darius in 486 BC, Xerxes ascended to the throne, inheriting a vast but restless empire. His immediate challenge was consolidating power and addressing revolts that had begun in the final years of his father's rule, most significantly in Egypt and Babylon.

Campaign against Greece

The central military endeavor of Xerxes's reign was the Second Persian invasion of Greece, launched in 480 BC. This campaign was intended to punish the Greek city-states, particularly Athens and Sparta, for their support of the Ionian Revolt and their victory at the Battle of Marathon during his father's reign. Xerxes amassed a colossal army and navy, famously crossing the Hellespont on a pontoon bridge. Initial successes included the Battle of Thermopylae and the sack of Athens. However, the campaign met decisive defeat at the Battle of Salamis, a naval engagement that crippled the Persian fleet. This was followed by the Battle of Plataea and the Battle of Mycale in 479 BC, which ended Persian ambitions in mainland Greece. The failure of this expedition drained imperial resources and prestige, shifting the strategic focus of the empire eastward.

Administration of the Empire

Following the Greek campaign, Xerxes largely turned his attention to the internal administration and consolidation of the empire. He continued the administrative system established by Darius the Great, which divided the empire into provinces called satrapies, each governed by a satrap. The empire's vast infrastructure, including the Royal Road and the Persepolis complex, was maintained. Xerxes's rule, however, is often characterized as more autocratic and less tolerant than that of his predecessors. This shift was evident in his religious policies; while generally continuing the Achaemenid tradition of religious tolerance, he promoted Zoroastrianism and the worship of Ahura Mazda more prominently within the court and imperial iconography. His administration focused on extracting wealth from the provinces to fund his building projects and maintain the imperial court's opulence.

Relations with Babylon and the Babylonian Revolts

Xerxes I's relationship with Babylon was the most consequential aspect of his rule for the ancient city. Early in his reign, Babylon rebelled twice. The first revolt, led by Bel-shimanni, was quickly suppressed. A more serious rebellion erupted in 484 BC, led by Shamash-eriba. This revolt was a direct challenge to Achaemenid authority and sought to restore independent Babylonian kingship. Xerxes responded with overwhelming force, brutally crushing the uprising. His retaliation was transformative: he is reported to have destroyed the city's fortifications, looted and possibly melted down the golden statue of the patron god Marduk from the Esagila temple, and terminated the traditional Babylonian title of "King of Babylon." The office of satrap remained, but the special status Babylon had held since the time of Cyrus the Great was abolished. This marked the end of Babylon as a major political entity and its reduction to a taxed province, a profound act of imperial subjugation with long-lasting social and economic impacts on the region.

Building Projects and Legacy

Despite military setbacks, Xerxes I was a prolific builder, continuing and expanding the construction works at the ceremonial capital of Persepolis. He completed the Gate of All Nations and began the massive Hall of a Hundred Columns. His building inscriptions, such as the inscription at Mount Van, proclaimed his divine right to rule and his achievements. In Babylon, however, his legacy is one of destruction rather than construction. The suppression of the revolts and the desecration of the Esagila temple complex severed a key cultural and religious link to the city's imperial past. His reign thus represents a pivotal moment in Mesopotamian history, where local autonomy was decisively crushed in favor of a centralized Persian imperial model. His portrayal in Greek historiography, particularly in Herodotus's Histories, as a hubristic and despotic oriental monarch, has heavily influenced the Western historical memory of him.

Death and Succession

Xerxes I was assassinated in 465 BC in a palace coup led by the head of the royal bodyguard, Artabanus, and a powerful court eunuch named Aspamitres. The conspiracy also resulted in the murder of his crown prince, Darius. The motivations for the regicide are unclear but likely involved court intrigues and dissatisfaction among the Persian nobility. He was succeeded by his younger son, Artaxerxes I, who secured the throne after killing his brother and co-conspirator, Hystaspes. Xerxes was buried in a rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam, near Persepolis, alongside other Achaemenid kings. His death did not significantly alter the empire's policy towards Babylon, which remained a subdued province under his successors until the fall of the Achaemenid Empire to Alexander the Great.