Korematsu v. United States

Korematsu v. United States was a landmark United States Supreme Court case that involved the Japanese American Fred Korematsu, who challenged the Executive Order 9066 issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II. The case was a significant test of the United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights, particularly the Fourteenth Amendment and the Fifth Amendment, as it raised questions about the balance between national security and civil liberties. The case also drew attention to the experiences of Japanese Americans during World War II, including those who were interned at camps such as Manzanar and Tule Lake, and the role of organizations like the American Civil Liberties Union and the Japanese American Citizens League. The case was argued by Lawson Purdy and Charles H. Fahy, and involved notable figures such as Earl Warren, Hugo Black, and Felix Frankfurter.

Background

The background of the case involved the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7, 1941, which led to the United States' entry into World War II. Following the attack, there were fears of espionage and sabotage by Japanese Americans, which were fueled by reports from the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Office of Naval Intelligence. In response, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, which authorized the War Department to establish military areas and to exclude certain individuals from these areas. The order was used to justify the forced relocation and internment of over 120,000 Japanese Americans, including Fred Korematsu, who was a Japanese American living in California. The internment was carried out by the War Relocation Authority, which was established by Executive Order 9102, and involved the use of concentration camps such as Manzanar and Tule Lake. The case also involved the American Civil Liberties Union, which was founded by Crystal Eastman and Norman Thomas, and the Japanese American Citizens League, which was founded by James Sakamoto and Tatsuro Masuda.

The Case

The case began when Fred Korematsu was arrested on May 30, 1942, for violating the exclusion order issued by the War Department. Korematsu was a Japanese American who had been born in Oakland, California, and had grown up in the United States. He was a welder and had tried to enlist in the United States Navy, but was rejected due to his Japanese ancestry. Korematsu's case was taken up by the American Civil Liberties Union, which argued that the exclusion order was unconstitutional and that Korematsu's rights had been violated. The case was argued by Lawson Purdy and Charles H. Fahy, and involved notable figures such as Earl Warren, who was the Attorney General of California at the time, and Hugo Black, who was a Supreme Court Justice. The case also drew attention to the experiences of other Japanese Americans during World War II, including those who were interned at camps such as Poston War Relocation Center and Granada War Relocation Center, and the role of organizations like the Congress of Industrial Organizations and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.

Supreme Court Decision

The Supreme Court of the United States heard the case on October 11, 1944, and issued its decision on December 18, 1944. The court, in a 6-3 decision, upheld the exclusion order and ruled that the War Department had the authority to exclude individuals from certain areas for national security reasons. The majority opinion was written by Justice Hugo Black, who argued that the exclusion order was a military necessity and that the War Department had the authority to make decisions about national security. The dissenting opinion was written by Justice Frank Murphy, who argued that the exclusion order was unconstitutional and that it violated the Fourteenth Amendment and the Fifth Amendment. The case also involved notable figures such as Felix Frankfurter, who was a Supreme Court Justice, and William O. Douglas, who was a Supreme Court Justice and a former Chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission. The decision was criticized by organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union and the Japanese American Citizens League, and was seen as a setback for civil liberties during World War II.

Aftermath and Legacy

The aftermath of the case was significant, as it led to a re-evaluation of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. In the 1980s, the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians was established to investigate the internment and to provide recommendations for reparations. The commission's report, which was issued in 1983, concluded that the internment was a grave injustice and that it was motivated by racism and xenophobia. The report also recommended that the United States government provide reparations to the Japanese Americans who were interned, which was done through the Civil Liberties Act of 1988. The case also had a significant impact on the development of civil liberties in the United States, as it highlighted the importance of protecting the rights of minority groups during times of war and national emergency. The case has been cited in numerous other cases, including Brown v. Board of Education and Loving v. Virginia, and has been the subject of numerous books and articles, including works by Michi Weglyn and Peter Irons. The case has also been recognized by organizations such as the American Bar Association and the National Lawyers Guild, and has been the subject of numerous documentaries and films, including The Internment of Japanese Americans and Korematsu v. United States: A Documentary History.

Coram Nobis Case

In 1983, Fred Korematsu's case was re-opened through a writ of coram nobis, which is a legal procedure that allows a court to re-examine a case in light of new evidence. The case was re-opened after it was discovered that the War Department had withheld evidence from the Supreme Court during the original case, including a report from the Federal Bureau of Investigation that concluded that there was no evidence of espionage or sabotage by Japanese Americans. The United States District Court for the Northern District of California vacated Korematsu's conviction and dismissed the charges against him. The case was a significant victory for Fred Korematsu and for the Japanese American community, as it provided a measure of justice and redress for the injustices that they had suffered during World War II. The case also involved notable figures such as Dale Minami, who was a lawyer and an activist for Japanese American rights, and Lorraine Bannai, who was a lawyer and a professor at Seattle University School of Law. The case has been recognized by organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union and the Japanese American Citizens League, and has been the subject of numerous books and articles, including works by Peter Irons and Eric Muller.