John Chivington

John Chivington was a Methodist minister and Union Army officer who played a significant role in the American Civil War and the Colorado War. He is best known for his involvement in the Sand Creek Massacre, which occurred on November 29, 1864, near Fort Lyon, Colorado, and resulted in the deaths of over 150 Cheyenne and Arapaho people, including many women and children, such as White Antelope and One Eye. Chivington's actions were influenced by his interactions with notable figures like John Evans (governor), William N. Byers, and David Moffat (industrialist). His legacy is also connected to the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851), the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the Boulder City, Colorado settlement.

● Early Life and Education

John Chivington was born on January 27, 1821, in Lebanon, Ohio, to a family of Methodist farmers, and was raised in a community that included notable figures like Francis Asbury and Bishop Matthew Simpson. He attended Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, where he studied theology and developed his skills as a preacher, influenced by the works of John Wesley and Charles Wesley. Chivington's early life was also shaped by his interactions with Native American tribes, including the Shawnee and Miami people, during his time in Ohio and Indiana. He later moved to Missouri and Iowa, where he continued to work as a minister and became involved in the Abolitionist movement, alongside figures like John Brown (abolitionist) and William Lloyd Garrison.

● Military Career

Chivington's military career began in 1861, when he enlisted in the Union Army as a chaplain in the 1st Colorado Infantry Regiment, which was part of the Department of the Missouri under the command of Henry Halleck and Ulysses S. Grant. He quickly rose through the ranks, becoming a lieutenant colonel in the 2nd Colorado Cavalry Regiment, and participated in several battles, including the Battle of Glorieta Pass and the Battle of Apache Canyon, alongside notable officers like Kit Carson and George Armstrong Custer. Chivington's military actions were influenced by his interactions with Native American tribes, including the Cheyenne and Arapaho, and were shaped by the policies of the United States Department of War and the Bureau of Indian Affairs, led by figures like Edwin Stanton and Caleb Blood Smith.

● Sand Creek Massacre

The Sand Creek Massacre was a pivotal event in Chivington's career, and one that would have far-reaching consequences for the Cheyenne and Arapaho people, as well as for the United States government, which had established the Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) and the Medicine Lodge Treaty. On November 29, 1864, Chivington led a force of over 700 Colorado Territory militia in an attack on a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment near Fort Lyon, Colorado, resulting in the deaths of over 150 people, including many women and children, such as White Antelope and One Eye. The massacre was widely condemned by figures like Nelson A. Miles, George Crook, and Henry B. Carrington, and led to a significant shift in the United States government's policy towards Native American tribes, including the establishment of the Indian Appropriations Act and the Dawes Act. Chivington's actions were also influenced by his interactions with notable figures like John Evans (governor), William N. Byers, and David Moffat (industrialist), who played important roles in the Colorado War.

● Later Life and Legacy

After the Sand Creek Massacre, Chivington's career was marked by controversy and criticism, and he was eventually forced to resign from the Union Army in 1865, due in part to the efforts of figures like Henry B. Carrington and Nelson A. Miles. He returned to Denver, Colorado, where he continued to work as a minister and became involved in local politics, interacting with notable figures like William N. Byers and David Moffat (industrialist). Chivington's legacy is complex and multifaceted, and he is remembered both as a hero of the American Civil War and as a perpetrator of the Sand Creek Massacre, which was widely condemned by figures like Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman. His actions have been the subject of numerous books, articles, and films, including works by Dee Brown and Ward Churchill, and have been recognized by the United States Congress through the establishment of the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site.

● Controversy and Criticism

Chivington's involvement in the Sand Creek Massacre has been widely criticized by historians and Native American leaders, including figures like Vine Deloria Jr. and Wilma Mankiller, who have argued that the massacre was a war crime and a genocide. Chivington's actions have also been criticized by figures like Kit Carson and George Armstrong Custer, who were involved in the American Indian Wars and recognized the importance of treating Native American tribes with respect and dignity. The Sand Creek Massacre has been the subject of numerous investigations and inquiries, including a United States Congressional investigation led by Senator James R. Doolittle, and has been recognized as a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service. Chivington's legacy continues to be the subject of controversy and debate, with many calling for a more nuanced understanding of his role in the American West and the American Indian Wars, and for greater recognition of the experiences and perspectives of Native American peoples, including the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes.