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| religion | |
|---|---|
| Name | Religion |
| Type | Social and cultural system |
| Region | Global |
| Founder | Various |
| Founded | Prehistoric–present |
religion
Religion denotes organized systems of belief, ritual, and community centered on sacred narratives, authoritative figures, ritual specialists, and institutional structures. It shapes identities and practices across societies, interacting with political authorities, cultural movements, scientific developments, and artistic traditions. Scholarship draws on archaeology, philology, anthropology, sociology, and philosophy to analyze religious texts, rites, and institutions.
The English term derives from Latin roots conveyed in writings of Marcus Tullius Cicero, Marcus Terentius Varro, and later medieval scholars such as Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas. Academic definitions vary: Emile Durkheim emphasized social functions in works connected to Durkheimian theory, Clifford Geertz proposed a symbolic-interpretive approach in essays linked to Harvard University and the University of Chicago, and Mircea Eliade focused on sacred–profane distinctions influenced by comparative philology at institutions like the University of Bucharest. Legal and constitutional texts in states such as France, United Kingdom, and United States operationalize the term differently in cases adjudicated by courts including the European Court of Human Rights and the Supreme Court of the United States.
Religious systems commonly include cosmologies, soteriologies, ritual calendars, clerical hierarchies, and ethical codes exemplified by figures such as Jesus, Muhammad, Buddha, and Moses. Ritual practices—pilgrimage to sites like Mecca, Varanasi, Jerusalem, or Lourdes—and liturgies associated with institutions such as the Roman Catholic Church or Sunni Islam organize communal life. Textual canons like the Bible, Qur'an, Bhagavad Gita, and Tripitaka provide doctrinal frameworks interpreted by commentators such as Thomas Aquinas, Ibn Taymiyya, Adi Shankara, and Nagarjuna. Religious specialists—priests in Vatican City, imams in Cairo, monks in Lhasa, and shamans in Siberia—mediate sacramental actions and ritual healing, while festivals such as Easter, Ramadan, Diwali, and Hanukkah mark temporal cycles.
Religious formations emerge in prehistoric hunter-gatherer contexts studied at sites like Göbekli Tepe and Çatalhöyük and evolve through ancient civilizations—Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus Valley Civilization, and Shang dynasty. Transformations occur during epochal events: the axial age debates involving societies in Greece, India, China, and Israel; the spread of Christianity via the Roman Empire; the rise of Islam across the Umayyad Caliphate and Abbasid Caliphate; and reformations exemplified by the Protestant Reformation and figures such as Martin Luther. Colonial encounters involving Spanish Empire, British Empire, and Dutch East India Company reshaped indigenous systems in regions including Latin America, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Twentieth-century movements from the Second Vatican Council to postcolonial nationalism and new religious movements in places like California and Tokyo further altered landscapes.
Major traditions studied comparatively include branches of Christianity—Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church, and Protestantism—Islamic denominations such as Sunni Islam and Shia Islam, Dharmic traditions including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, and East Asian systems like Taoism and Confucianism. Indigenous and syncretic forms appear in contexts like Vodou in Haiti, Candomblé in Brazil, and Shinto in Japan. New religious movements encompassing groups such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Scientology illustrate contemporary developments. Interfaith organizations and ecumenical councils, including World Council of Churches and initiatives linked with United Nations forums, address dialogue and cooperation.
Demographic analyses by agencies and research centers including Pew Research Center and World Religion Database chart patterns of affiliation, conversion, fertility, and secularization across countries like China, India, Nigeria, and Brazil. Sociologists such as Max Weber examined the relationship between religious ethics and economic behavior in works tied to University of Heidelberg, while scholars like Peter Berger analyzed pluralism and secularization linked to urban centers such as New York City and London. Religious institutions intersect with civil society organizations, political parties, and social movements exemplified by campaigns connected to Solidarity and liberation theology in Latin America.
Philosophers and theologians—Thomas Aquinas, Immanuel Kant, Søren Kierkegaard, Al-Ghazali, and John Hick—debate arguments for and against theism, models of revelation, and problem of evil discussions linked to texts such as Summa Theologica and Theodicy. Comparative theology engages sources from Alexandria to Nalanda to develop interreligious hermeneutics, while analytic philosophers at institutions like Oxford University and Princeton University refine arguments for divine attributes, modality, and metaphysics.
Critics and secular movements include figures such as Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, and organizations like European Humanist Federation and American Atheists. Legal and cultural secularism is institutionalized in constitutions of states including Turkey and France and contested in public controversies involving courts such as the European Court of Human Rights. Contemporary atheist philosophers—Bertrand Russell, Daniel Dennett, and Christopher Hitchens—offer critiques interacting with debates over science-policy interfaces centered on agencies like NASA and universities such as Cambridge University.