post-quantum cryptography
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| post-quantum cryptography | |
|---|---|
| Name | Post-Quantum Cryptography |
| Type | Cryptography |
| First reported | 1994 |
| Developers | Many |
| Related | Quantum computing, Cryptanalysis |
post-quantum cryptography Post-quantum cryptography studies cryptographic algorithms designed to resist attacks by quantum computers, motivated by advances in quantum hardware such as D-Wave Systems, Google (company), IBM, Rigetti Computing, IonQ, and research institutions including MIT, University of Oxford, University of Waterloo, Caltech, and ETH Zurich. It addresses concerns raised after landmark results by Peter Shor and developments at conferences like CRYPTO (conference), Eurocrypt, Asiacrypt, RSA Conference, and QIP; industry and public institutions including National Institute of Standards and Technology, European Commission, US Department of Defense, UK National Cyber Security Centre, and NSA have driven standardization and policy work.
Overview
Post-quantum cryptography encompasses classes of algorithms—lattice-based, code-based, multivariate, hash-based, and isogeny-based—studied at venues such as IACR, ACM, IEEE, SIAM, and institutions like Bell Labs and Microsoft Research. Its goals intersect with projects at NIST, ENISA, NSA, and private initiatives by Amazon Web Services, Google (company), Cloudflare, Cisco Systems, and Intel Corporation. Practitioners evaluate algorithmic efficiency against deployment platforms from ARM Holdings, NVIDIA, AMD, and standards bodies such as IETF and ISO. Historical milestones include theoretical breakthroughs by Peter Shor, Lov K. Grover, Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali, Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, Leonard Adleman, and later algorithm proposals by researchers associated with Stefan Banach Centre, Nokia Bell Labs, IBM Research, and Tsinghua University.
Quantum Threat and Motivation
The quantum threat arises from algorithms like Shor's algorithm that impact widely deployed protocols including those specified in TLS, IPsec, X.509, PGP, and standards overseen by IETF and W3C. Concerned stakeholders—such as National Security Agency, European Central Bank, Bank of England, World Bank, SWIFT, and technology firms like Microsoft (company) and Amazon (company)—have assessed timelines influenced by demonstrations at Google (company), IBM, and experiments reported at APS March Meeting and AAAS presentations. Quantum progress at laboratories including Harvard University, Yale University, Stanford University, and industrial labs like Intel Corporation and Honeywell informs risk models used by regulators including Financial Stability Board and European Banking Authority.
Post-Quantum Algorithms and Schemes
Major algorithm families include lattice-based schemes (e.g., proposals from groups linked to NTRU originators and researchers at Dublin City University and University of Waterloo), code-based systems inspired by Robert McEliece and work from Goppa, multivariate quadratic systems advanced by teams at Tsinghua University and University of Bath, hash-based digital signatures influenced by Ralph Merkle and later implementers like Guido Bertoni, and isogeny-based constructions from researchers connected to Cornell University and University of Tokyo. Implementations have been benchmarked in platforms by OpenSSL, BoringSSL, LibreSSL, GnuPG, and libraries developed at Mozilla Corporation. Candidate algorithms evaluated during NIST competitions drew contributions from researchers affiliated with Kyoto University, KAIST, Ecole Polytechnique, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, University of Birmingham, and private labs including Fortanix and Cryptography Research (RSA Laboratories).
Security Models and Hardness Assumptions
Security analyses relate to worst-case and average-case assumptions such as the hardness of the Learning With Errors problem and shortest vector problems studied at Courant Institute, Institute for Advanced Study, and Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in the Sciences. Proofs often reference classical complexity classes and conjectures discussed at Clay Mathematics Institute and in conferences like STOC and FOCS. Cryptanalysis efforts appear in workshops at DIMACS, Simons Institute, Perimeter Institute, and include attacks from teams at CWI, INRIA, NIST, and private cryptanalytic groups tied to NCC Group and Kudelski Security. Standards bodies such as IETF and ISO examine model assumptions when specifying parameter sets and security levels aligned with notions promoted by Bruce Schneier and theoreticians like Oded Goldreich.
Standardization and Implementation
Standardization efforts led by NIST concluded selection rounds engaging contributors from Microsoft Research, Google (company), IBM Research, NXP Semiconductors, Broadcom, and academic groups at Technische Universität Darmstadt and University of California, Berkeley. Implementations have been ported to operating systems and services maintained by Red Hat, Canonical (company), Apple Inc., Microsoft Corporation, and cloud providers including Amazon Web Services and Google Cloud Platform. Interoperability testing occurs at consortia such as OpenSSL Project, IETF, Cloud Security Alliance, and industry groups like Telefónica and Vodafone. Hardware acceleration and secure enclaves from Intel Corporation, ARM Holdings, NVIDIA, and Apple Inc. affect performance and deployment strategies.
Migration Strategies and Practical Considerations
Migration planning mirrors large-scale transitions like adoption experiences of IPv6, rollout lessons studied by ITU, and procurement frameworks used by European Commission and U.S. Government. Enterprise migration engages vendors including Cisco Systems, Juniper Networks, F5 Networks, and security auditors such as Ernst & Young, KPMG, Deloitte, and PwC. Key practices include hybrid key-exchange and signature deployments, backward compatibility testing performed by Mozilla Corporation and IETF working groups, and supply-chain risk analyses inspired by incidents investigated by NCSC (UK) and CISA.
Research Challenges and Future Directions
Open research topics involve refining hardness assumptions studied at Simons Institute and improving implementation resilience against side-channel attacks explored at University of Pennsylvania, University of Cambridge, EPFL, and TU Delft. Long-term directions include integration with quantum-resistant hardware platforms developed at Rigetti Computing, IonQ, Google (company), and standard updates coordinated with NIST and ISO. Cross-disciplinary efforts link to policy communities at European Commission and United Nations forums, while cryptographic education initiatives involve programs at Coursera, edX, MIT OpenCourseWare, and university curricula at Stanford University, Princeton University, and Columbia University.