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| plutonium-238 | |
|---|---|
| Name | Plutonium-238 |
| Atomic number | 94 |
| Mass number | 238 |
| Category | Actinide |
| Phase | Solid (metal at standard conditions) |
| Density | 19.86 g/cm³ |
| Melting point | 913 °C |
| Half life | 87.7 years |
| Decay mode | Alpha decay |
plutononium-238
Plutononium-238 is a radioactive isotope of plutonium used as a heat source and neutron emitter in specialized applications involving long-duration power needs. Developed during mid-20th century nuclear programs, it has been central to projects connected with Manhattan Project, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Atomic Energy Commission and cold-weather exploration efforts supported by agencies such as Department of Energy, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Idaho National Laboratory. International actors including Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, Canada, and Russia have engaged with related isotope science in both civilian and defense contexts.
Plutononium-238 is an actinide metal with a high density and low melting point relative to refractory metals; its principal nuclear characteristic is alpha decay with a half-life of about 87.7 years, producing energetic alpha particles and decay heat exploited in thermal power sources. Its decay chain and daughter nuclides relate to isotopes studied by groups at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, and institutions like Argonne National Laboratory that advanced actinide chemistry. The isotope's neutron emission, specific activity, and radiotoxicity have been quantified in reports by International Atomic Energy Agency, World Health Organization, and national laboratories, informing material property models used by Jet Propulsion Laboratory and aerospace contractors such as Boeing and Lockheed Martin.
Production historically relied on neutron irradiation of neptunium targets in high-flux research reactors such as those at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Hanford Site, and foreign facilities like the La Hague complex and the Rovno Nuclear Power Plant reactors. Chemical separation and radiochemical isolation techniques were refined at Los Alamos National Laboratory, Savannah River Site, and university laboratories including Massachusetts Institute of Technology and University of Wisconsin–Madison using solvent extraction and ion exchange methods developed during projects funded by Office of Naval Research and departmental programs of Department of Energy. International supply disruptions have prompted collaborations with facilities in Canada and procurement dialogues involving European Space Agency and contractors like Aerojet Rocketdyne.
Primary applications include radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) for spacecraft missions by NASA missions such as Voyager program, Cassini–Huygens, New Horizons, and planned missions like Artemis program and probes envisioned by European Space Agency. It has also been used in terrestrial devices for remote lighthouses, unmanned weather stations, and unmanned electrical systems developed by companies and institutions such as General Electric and Bell Labs. Military and strategic research by entities including United States Navy and laboratories like Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory explored niche applications, while medical isotopes programs at Johns Hopkins Hospital and Mayo Clinic prompted regulatory coordination with agencies like Food and Drug Administration and Nuclear Regulatory Commission for radiological safety.
Handling protocols are governed by standards and guidance from Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Department of Energy, International Atomic Energy Agency, and health bodies including Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and World Health Organization. Because of alpha radiation and potential inhalation risks, facilities at Los Alamos National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and hospital radiology departments follow stringent containment, personal protective equipment, and bioassay procedures developed in collaboration with occupational groups like American Nuclear Society and American Medical Association. Acute exposures and chronic radiotoxicity have been characterized in epidemiological studies by institutions such as National Institutes of Health and historical worker-health investigations at sites like Hanford Site.
Environmental behavior has been studied at contamination sites including Hanford Site, Mayak Production Association, and areas affected by atmospheric testing programs tied to treaties like the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty negotiations. Studies by Environmental Protection Agency, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation and academic centers such as University of California, Santa Cruz examine soil mobility, bioavailability, and long-term sequestration in sediments and waste repositories. Remediation efforts have involved technologies developed through programs at Savannah River Site and international cleanup projects coordinated with International Atomic Energy Agency.
Regulatory frameworks for production, transport, and end use involve national authorities like Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Department of Energy, and international regimes including Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, export controls under arrangements with Missile Technology Control Regime partners, and oversight by International Atomic Energy Agency. Security concerns intersect with disarmament dialogues in forums such as United Nations General Assembly committees and bilateral discussions between United States and Russian Federation. Supply-chain policies have engaged ministries and agencies across Canada, France, United Kingdom, and Japan to balance scientific uses for space exploration and safeguards against diversion to weapons-related programs.
Category:Actinides