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| kendang | |
|---|---|
| Name | Kendang |
| Classification | Membranophone |
| Developed | Maritime Southeast Asia |
| Related | Gamelan drums, Bedug, Tabla, Taiko |
kendang
The kendang is a double-headed hand drum central to many musical traditions of Maritime Southeast Asia, notably in Indonesian, Malaysian, and Philippine contexts. It functions as both an accompanying instrument and a lead rhythmic voice across genres, and appears in ensembles connected to courtly, folk, and religious practices involving figures such as Sultanate of Yogyakarta, Sultanate of Surakarta, Cirebon, Bali, and Minangkabau. Performers cite pedagogical lineages tied to institutions like the Conservatory of Music, Jakarta and events such as the Prambanan Jazz Festival and Gamelan Sekaten.
Scholars trace the name to Austronesian lexical items documented by researchers at institutions like the National Museum of Indonesia and Universitas Gadjah Mada, and linguistic comparisons involve corpora from Malay language, Javanese language, Sundanese language, and Balinese language. Historical mentions appear in travelogues collected by archives including the British Library and KITLV (Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies), and etymological analysis engages methods used in works from the Linguistic Society of America and Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. Terminology varies by region, with cognates and alternative names recorded by ethnomusicologists affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution, Royal Anthropological Institute, and University of Malaya.
Traditional construction draws on timber species cataloged in studies by the Bogor Botanical Gardens and materials research from the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI). Shells may be carved from woods associated with Teak, Sonokeling, and Jackfruit tree inventories held by botanical gardens and forestry departments. Heads employ skins sourced from animals managed under agricultural guidelines of the Ministry of Agriculture (Indonesia) and veterinary literature from Universitas Airlangga; common hides include those similar to skins used in instruments documented at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Victoria and Albert Museum. Craftsmanship techniques follow guild traditions recorded by cultural heritage groups such as UNESCO and national bodies like the Indonesian Directorate General of Culture.
Playing technique incorporates hand positions and strokes comparable to pedagogy at conservatories such as Institut Seni Indonesia and research centers like the Australian National University’s musicology department. Rhythm systems interface with modal and temporal frameworks studied in analyses by scholars at Cornell University and SOAS University of London, describing patterns akin to colotomy found in ensembles that also feature instruments like the siter, rebab, bonang, kendhang, gong ageng, and kenong. Technique literature references performance masters from traditions tied to the Sultanate of Cirebon, the Surakarta court, and urban gamelan communities documented by the British Museum and Yale University.
Variations include forms associated with cultural centers such as Yogyakarta, Surakarta, Bali, Sunda, Minangkabau, and Makassar. Each type corresponds to repertories performed at institutions and events like the Keraton Yogyakarta, Pura Besakih, Tabuik festival, Hari Raya, and ritual contexts observed in fieldwork by teams from Leiden University and University of California, Los Angeles. Ethnomusicologists reference archival recordings held by the Library of Congress, NHK Archives, and the Dutch National Archives to classify local variants and their names in languages including Javanese language, Sundanese language, and Balinese language.
The drum acts as timekeeper and lead voice in ensembles spanning Gamelan, Wayang kulit shadow-play orchestras, Topeng dance troupes, Gamelan beleganjur, Keroncong groups, and contemporary fusion projects showcased at festivals like Java Jazz Festival and venues connected to the Jakarta Arts Council. It interacts with melodic and idiophonic instruments found in repertoires associated with the Prambanan temple complex, the Bali Arts Festival, and touring companies that have partnered with organizations such as the Asia-Europe Foundation and the Asian Cultural Council.
Tuning practices reference techniques parallel to methods used in the maintenance of percussive instruments conserved at the Smithsonian Institution and the Musée de l'Homme. Pitch adjustment employs head tensioning similar to practices documented by workshops at Institut Seni Indonesia and luthiers working with conservatories like the Royal College of Music (exchange programs). Maintenance protocols align with museum conservation standards promoted by the International Council of Museums and training modules from cultural ministries of Indonesia and Malaysia.
The instrument features in rites and spectacles connected to dynastic ceremonies of the Mataram Sultanate, harvest festivities in West Sumatra, funeral rites in Sulawesi, and national cultural presentations organized by agencies such as the Ministry of Education and Culture (Indonesia). Its social roles are documented in ethnographies housed at the National University of Singapore, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, and research programs funded by bodies like the European Research Council and the Ford Foundation. Contemporary scholarship examines its place in identity politics, intangible heritage listings by UNESCO, and intercultural collaborations involving ensembles from institutions such as the Tokyo University of the Arts and the Curtis Institute of Music.